{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T02:13:43Z","timestamp":1784168023978,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]],"date-time":"2021-12-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640131200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Disordered gaming has gained increased medical attention and was recently included in the eleventh <jats:italic>International Classification of Diseases<\/jats:italic> (ICD-11) by the World Health Organization (WHO) after its earlier inclusion in the <jats:italic>Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders<\/jats:italic> (fifth revision) (DSM-5) as an emerging disorder by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). Although many studies have investigated associations between personality and disordered gaming, no previous research compared the differential associations between personality and disordered gaming with time spent gaming. Due to the novelty of the WHO diagnostic framework for disordered gaming, previous research focused mainly on the associations between personality and disordered gaming in relation to the APA framework. Beyond that, these studies are generally limited by small sample sizes and\/or the lack of cross-cultural emphasis due to single-country sampling. To address these limitations, the present study aimed to investigate the associations between personality and gaming behavior in a large and culturally heterogeneous sample (N = 50,925) of individuals from 150 countries. The results obtained suggested that low conscientiousness and high neuroticism were robustly associated with disordered gaming across both the APA and WHO frameworks. Interestingly, personality associations with weekly time spent gaming were smaller. The findings of the present study suggest that personality is of higher importance to predict disordered gaming compared to weekly time spent gaming.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0261380","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]],"date-time":"2021-12-22T18:33:28Z","timestamp":1640198008000},"page":"e0261380","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Empirical evidence for robust personality-gaming disorder associations from a large-scale international investigation applying the APA and WHO frameworks"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8112-0837","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Christian","family":"Montag","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher","family":"Kannen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruno","family":"Schivinski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8020-7623","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Halley M.","family":"Pontes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0261380.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2019.106059","article-title":"A new era for gaming disorder research: Time to shift from consensus to consistency","volume":"103","author":"HM Pontes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addict Behav"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596","volume-title":"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders","author":"American Psychiatric Association","year":"2013","edition":"5"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref003","unstructured":"World Health Organisation. 6C51 Gaming disorder. In:; 2021. https:\/\/icd.who.int\/browse11\/l-m\/en#\/ http:\/\/id.who.int\/icd\/entity\/1448597234"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0261380.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1556\/2006.5.2016.062","article-title":"Chaos and confusion in DSM-5 diagnosis of Internet Gaming Disorder: Issues, concerns, and recommendations for clarity in the field","volume":"6","author":"DJ Kuss","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Behavioral Addictions"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0261380.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1556\/2006.7.2018.19","article-title":"A weak scientific basis for gaming disorder: Let us err on the side of caution","volume":"7","author":"Ferguson CJ Rooij AJ van","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Behavioral Addictions"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref006","article-title":"Expert appraisal of criteria for assessing gaming disorder: an international Delphi study","author":"J Castro-Calvo","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref007","first-page":"0004867420962851","article-title":"Global prevalence of gaming disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis","author":"MW Stevens","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aust N Z J Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2016.08.033","article-title":"Integrating psychological and neurobiological considerations regarding the development and maintenance of specific Internet-use disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model","volume":"71","author":"M Brand","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0261380.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1007\/s40429-017-0159-6","article-title":"Personality and Internet Gaming Disorder: a Systematic Review of Recent Literature","volume":"4","author":"AM Gervasi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr Addict Rep"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2018.12.010","article-title":"The impact of depression, anxiety, neuroticism, and severity of Internet addiction symptoms on the relationship between probable ADHD and severity of insomnia among young adults","volume":"271","author":"B Evren","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatry Research"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0261380.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1027\/1864-1105\/a000049","article-title":"Internet Addiction and Personality in First-Person-Shooter Video Gamers","volume":"23","author":"C Montag","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Media Psychology"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-019-00126-w","article-title":"The Association Between Internet Gaming Disorder and Impulsivity: A Systematic Review of Literature","author":"\u015e\u0130 \u015ealvarl\u0131","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Ment Health Addiction"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0261380.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1089\/cyber.2009.0229","article-title":"Online Gaming Addiction: The Role of Sensation Seeking, Self-Control, Neuroticism, Aggression, State Anxiety, and Trait Anxiety","volume":"13","author":"M Mehroof","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2019.03.045","article-title":"A new agenda for personality psychology in the digital age?","volume":"147","author":"C Montag","year":"2019","journal-title":"Personality and Individual Differences"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0261380.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1002\/jaoc.12069","article-title":"Personality, Motivation, and Internet Gaming Disorder: Conceptualizing the Gamer","volume":"40","author":"KL Carlisle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Addictions & Offender Counseling"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0261380.ref016","first-page":"2032","article-title":"Addictive Use Due to Personality: Focused on Big Five Personality Traits and Game Addiction","volume":"9","author":"E Jeong","journal-title":"International Journal of Psychological and Behavioral Sciences"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0261380.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1691","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm8101691","article-title":"Psychopathological Symptoms and Gaming Motives in Disordered Gaming\u2014A Psychometric Comparison between the WHO and APA Diagnostic Frameworks","volume":"8","author":"C Montag","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Medicine"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref018","article-title":"Measurement and Conceptualization of Gaming Disorder According to the World Health Organization Framework: the Development of the Gaming Disorder Test","author":"HM Pontes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Ment Health Addiction"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2020.110483","article-title":"The associations between Big Five personality traits, gaming motives, and self-reported time spent gaming","volume":"171","author":"LC de Hesselle","year":"2021","journal-title":"Personality and Individual Differences"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0261380.ref020","first-page":"129","article-title":"Investigating Risk Factors for Internet Gaming Disorder: A Comparison of Patients with Addictive Gaming, Pathological Gamblers and Healthy Controls regarding the Big Five Personality Traits","volume":"20","author":"KW M\u00fcller","year":"2014","journal-title":"EAR"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0261380.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1556\/2006.2020.00069","article-title":"The association between the Big Five personality traits and smartphone use disorder: A meta-analysis","volume":"9","author":"D Marengo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Behavioral Addictions"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0261380.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1556\/2006.2021.00016","article-title":"Depression and anxiety symptoms associated with internet gaming disorder before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal study","volume":"10","author":"Z Teng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Behavioral Addictions"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref023","volume-title":"R: A language and environment for statistical computing","author":"R Core Team","year":"2021"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref024","unstructured":"Yentes RD, Wilhelm F. Careless: Procedures for computing indices of careless responding. R package version 1.2.1. Published online 2021. https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/web\/packages\/careless\/careless.pdf"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0261380.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrp.2008.10.002","article-title":"Ten facet scales for the Big Five Inventory: Convergence with NEO PI-R facets, self-peer agreement, and discriminant validity","volume":"43","author":"CJ Soto","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Research in Personality"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0261380.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02723327","article-title":"On the evaluation of structural equation models","volume":"16","author":"RP Bagozzi","year":"1988","journal-title":"JAMS"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2014.12.006","article-title":"Measuring DSM-5 internet gaming disorder: Development and validation of a short psychometric scale","volume":"45","author":"HM Pontes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0261380.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1007\/s11126-018-9610-7","article-title":"Psychometric Testing of Three Chinese Online-Related Addictive Behavior Instruments among Hong Kong University Students","volume":"90","author":"C-W Yam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatr Q"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref029","unstructured":"Morey RD, Rouder JN, Jamil T, Urbanek S, Forner K, Ly A. BayesFactor: Computation of Bayes Factors for Common Designs. Published online 2018. https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/web\/packages\/BayesFactor\/index.html"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref030","volume-title":"Psych: Procedures for Psychological, Psychometric, and Personality Research","author":"W. Revelle","year":"2021"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0261380.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2005.07.002","article-title":"Distinguishing addiction and high engagement in the context of online game playing","volume":"23","author":"JP Charlton","year":"2007","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"pone.0261380.ref032","first-page":"11","article-title":"Emerging insights on internet gaming disorder: Conceptual and measurement issues","author":"HM Pontes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Addict Behav Rep"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0261380.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1556\/2006.7.2018.59","article-title":"Including gaming disorder in the ICD-11: The need to do so from a clinical and public health perspective: Commentary on: A weak scientific basis for gaming disorder: Let us err on the side of caution (van Rooij et al., 2018)","volume":"7","author":"H-J Rumpf","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Behavioral Addictions"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0261380.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1093\/pch\/17.8.427","article-title":"Computer\/gaming station use in youth: Correlations among use, addiction and functional impairment","volume":"17","author":"S Baer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Paediatrics & Child Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0261380.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1556\/2006.6.2017.036","article-title":"Functional impairment matters in the screening and diagnosis of gaming disorder: Commentary on: Scholars\u2019 open debate paper on the World Health Organization ICD-11 Gaming Disorder proposal (Aarseth et al.)","volume":"6","author":"J Billieux","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Behavioral Addictions"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0261380.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1177\/0004867419881499","article-title":"Validity, functional impairment and complications related to Internet gaming disorder in the DSM-5 and gaming disorder in the ICD-11","volume":"54","author":"C-H Ko","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aust N Z J Psychiatry"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0261380","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]],"date-time":"2021-12-22T18:34:07Z","timestamp":1640198047000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0261380"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Marc","family":"Potenza","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0261380","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]]}}}