{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T10:57:15Z","timestamp":1782989835898,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,14]],"date-time":"2022-02-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644796800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004423","name":"World Health Organization","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["202605592"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202605592"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004423","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>There is an increasing need for rapid, reliable, non-invasive, and inexpensive mass testing methods as the global COVID-19 pandemic continues. Detection dogs could be a possible solution to identify individuals infected with SARS-CoV-2. Previous studies have shown that dogs can detect SARS-CoV-2 on sweat samples. This study aims to establish the dogs\u2019 sensitivity (true positive rate) which measures the proportion of people with COVID-19 that are correctly identified, and specificity (true negative rate) which measures the proportion of people without COVID-19 that are correctly identified. Seven search and rescue dogs were tested using a total of 218 axillary sweat samples (62 positive and 156 negative) in olfaction cones following a randomised and double-blind protocol. Sensitivity ranged from 87% to 94%, and specificity ranged from 78% to 92%, with four dogs over 90%. These results were used to calculate the positive predictive value and negative predictive value for each dog for different infection probabilities (how likely it is for an individual to be SARS-CoV-2 positive), ranging from 10\u201350%. These results were compared with a reference diagnostic tool which has 95% specificity and sensitivity. Negative predictive values for six dogs ranged from \u226598% at 10% infection probability to \u226588% at 50% infection probability compared with the reference tool which ranged from 99% to 95%. Positive predictive values ranged from \u226540% at 10% infection probability to \u226580% at 50% infection probability compared with the reference tool which ranged from 68% to 95%. This study confirms previous results, suggesting that dogs could play an important role in mass-testing situations. Future challenges include optimal training methods and standardisation for large numbers of detection dogs and infrastructure supporting their deployment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0262631","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,14]],"date-time":"2022-02-14T13:22:52Z","timestamp":1644844972000},"page":"e0262631","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Identifying SARS-COV-2 infected patients through canine olfactive detection on axillary sweat samples; study of observed sensitivities and specificities within a group of trained dogs"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8408-8358","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Dominique","family":"Grandjean","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Capucine","family":"Gallet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Clothilde","family":"Julien","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Riad","family":"Sarkis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Quentin","family":"Muzzin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vinciane","family":"Roger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Didier","family":"Roisse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicolas","family":"Dirn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Clement","family":"Levert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erwan","family":"Breton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arnaud","family":"Galtat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexandre","family":"Forget","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sebastien","family":"Charreaudeau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabien","family":"Gasmi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caroline","family":"Jean-Baptiste","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sebastien","family":"Petitjean","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katia","family":"Hamon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean-Michel","family":"Duquesne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chantal","family":"Coudert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean-Pierre","family":"Tourtier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christophe","family":"Billy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jean-Marc","family":"Wurtz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anthony","family":"Chauvin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xavier","family":"Eyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sabrina","family":"Ziani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Prevel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ilaria","family":"Cherubini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Enfel","family":"Khelili-Houas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pierre","family":"Hausfater","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Philippe","family":"Devillier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Loic","family":"Desquilbet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,14]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0262631.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"034001","DOI":"10.1088\/1752-7155\/8\/3\/034001","article-title":"The human volatilome: volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in exhaled breath, skin emanations, urine, feces and saliva","volume":"8","author":"A Amann","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of breath research"},{"issue":"19","key":"pone.0262631.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1465","DOI":"10.4155\/bio-2017-0128","article-title":"Development of sampling method and chromatographic analysis of volatile organic compounds emitted from human skin","volume":"9","author":"B Grabowska-Polanowska","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bioanalysis"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0262631.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2010.218305","article-title":"Colorectal cancer screening with odour material by canine scent detection","volume":"60","author":"H Sonoda","year":"2011","journal-title":"Gut"},{"issue":"Supp 1","key":"pone.0262631.ref004","first-page":"22","article-title":"D\u00e9pistage du cancer colorectal par d\u00e9tection olfactive canine","volume":"154","author":"R Sarkis","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Chir Visc"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0262631.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1093\/icvts\/ivr070","article-title":"Sniffer dogs as part of a bimodal bionic research approach to develop a lung cancer screening","volume":"14","author":"E Boedeker","year":"2012","journal-title":"Interactive cardiovascular and thoracic surgery"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0262631.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-012-6102-8","article-title":"Identification of volatile lung cancer markers by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: comparison with discrimination by canines","volume":"404","author":"B Buszewski","year":"2012","journal-title":"Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0262631.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00051711","article-title":"Canine scent detection in the diagnosis of lung cancer: revisiting a puzzling phenomenon","volume":"39","author":"R Ehmann","year":"2012","journal-title":"The European respiratory journal"},{"key":"pone.0262631.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lungcan.2019.06.008","article-title":"Trained dogs can identify malignant solitary pulmonary nodules in exhaled gas","volume":"135","author":"A Guirao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lung Cancer"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"pone.0262631.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2004.04.008","article-title":"Evidence for canine olfactory detection of melanoma","volume":"89","author":"D Pickel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl Anim Behav Sci"},{"key":"pone.0262631.ref010","first-page":"2013","article-title":"Canine olfactory detection of malignant melanoma","author":"LF Campbell","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMJ case reports"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0262631.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eururo.2010.10.033","article-title":"Dogs sniffing urine: a future diagnostic tool or a way to identify new prostate cancer markers?","volume":"59","author":"AS Bjartell","year":"2011","journal-title":"European urology"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0262631.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eururo.2010.10.006","article-title":"Olfactory detection of prostate cancer by dogs sniffing urine: a step forward in early diagnosis","volume":"59","author":"JN Cornu","year":"2011","journal-title":"European urology"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0262631.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2014.09.099","article-title":"Olfactory system of highly trained dogs detects prostate cancer in urine samples","volume":"193","author":"G Taverna","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Urol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0262631.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"046002","DOI":"10.1088\/1752-7163\/aa7b8e","article-title":"The detection of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) from patients\u2019 breath using canine scent detection: a proof-of-concept study","volume":"11","author":"T Kitiyakara","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of breath research"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0262631.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.1089\/acm.2008.0288","article-title":"Canine responses to hypoglycemia in patients with type 1 diabetes","volume":"14","author":"DL Wells","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Altern Complement Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0262631.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0210092","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0210092","article-title":"How effective are trained dogs at alerting their owners to changes in blood glycaemic levels?: Variations in performance of glycaemia alert dogs","volume":"14","author":"NJ Rooney","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0262631.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e69921","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0069921","article-title":"Investigation into the value of trained glycaemia alert dogs to clients with type I diabetes","volume":"8","author":"NJ Rooney","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"pone.0262631.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2019.00091","article-title":"An Owner-Independent Investigation of Diabetes Alert Dog Performance","volume":"6","author":"C Wilson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Frontiers in veterinary science"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0262631.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2008.05.011","article-title":"Seizure response dogs: evaluation of a formal training program","volume":"13","author":"A Kirton","year":"2008","journal-title":"Epilepsy & behavior: E&B"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0262631.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1040","DOI":"10.1002\/cbic.201300695","article-title":"Cellular scent of influenza virus infection","volume":"15","author":"AA Aksenov","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chembiochem: a European journal of chemical biology"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0262631.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1002\/cbic.201200011","article-title":"Characterization of volatile organic compounds in human leukocyte antigen heterologous expression systems: a cell\u2019s \"chemical odor fingerprint\"","volume":"13","author":"AA Aksenov","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chembiochem: a European journal of chemical biology"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0262631.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1783","DOI":"10.1002\/bmc.3494","article-title":"Volatile organic compounds generated by cultures of bacteria and viruses associated with respiratory infections","volume":"29","author":"A Abd El Qader","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomedical chromatography: BMC"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0262631.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0243122","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0243122","article-title":"Can the detection dog alert on COVID-19 positive persons by sniffing axillary sweat samples? A proof-of-concept study","volume":"15","author":"D Grandjean","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0262631.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.3.2000045","article-title":"Detection of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) by real-time RT-PCR","volume":"25","author":"VM Corman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Euro Surveill"},{"key":"pone.0262631.ref025","first-page":"48","article-title":"Diagnostic biologique de l\u2019infection \u00e0 Sars-CoV-2: strat\u00e9gies et interpr\u00e9tation des r\u00e9sultats","volume":"526","author":"S. Hantz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev Francoph Lab"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0262631.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-020-05281-3","article-title":"Scent dog identification of samples from COVID-19 patients\u2014a pilot study","volume":"20","author":"P Jendrny","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC infectious diseases"},{"key":"pone.0262631.ref027","article-title":"Dog Savior: Immediate Scent-Detection of SARS-COV-2 by Trained Dogs","author":"O Vesga","year":"2020","journal-title":"BioRxiv"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0262631.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-021-05939-6","article-title":"Sniffer dogs as a screening\/diagnostic tool for COVID-19: a proof of concept study","volume":"21","author":"E Eskandari","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC infectious diseases"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0262631.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0250158","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0250158","article-title":"Discrimination of SARS-CoV-2 infected patient samples by detection dogs: A proof of concept study","volume":"16","author":"JL Essler","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"pone.0262631.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jveb.2017.03.004","article-title":"Olfactory detection of cancer by trained sniffer dogs: A systematic review of the literature","volume":"19","author":"F Pirrone","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Vet Behav"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0262631.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jveb.2012.01.001","article-title":"Impact of individual training parameters and manner of taking breath odor samples on the reliability of canines as cancer screeners","volume":"7","author":"M Walczak","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Vet Behav"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0262631.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.12998\/wjcc.v8.i8.1391","article-title":"Stability and infectivity of coronaviruses in inanimate environments","volume":"8","author":"SY Ren","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J Clin Cases"},{"key":"pone.0262631.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2017.01.001","article-title":"An approach to identify bias in scent detection dog testing","volume":"189","author":"D Johnen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl Anim Behav Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0262631.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1214\/ss\/1009213286","article-title":"Interval Estimation for a Binomial Proportion","volume":"16","author":"LD Brown","year":"2001","journal-title":"Stat Sci"},{"issue":"6943","key":"pone.0262631.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1552","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.308.6943.1552","article-title":"Diagnostic tests. 1: Sensitivity and specificity","volume":"308","author":"DG Altman","year":"1994","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"issue":"6947","key":"pone.0262631.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.309.6947.102","article-title":"Diagnostic tests 2: Predictive values","volume":"309","author":"DG Altman","year":"1994","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0262631.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-021-01489-0","article-title":"False negative rate of COVID-19 PCR testing: a discordant testing analysis","volume":"18","author":"JN Kanji","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virol J"},{"key":"pone.0262631.ref038","unstructured":"Hielm-Bjorkman A. COVID-19 detection dogs studies in Finland. International k9 working group against COVID-19 symposium, Duba\u00ef (UAE). 2020."},{"key":"pone.0262631.ref039","unstructured":"Sarkis R. COVID-19 detection dogs studies in Lebanon. International k9 working group against COVID-19 symposium, Duba\u00ef (UAE). 2020."},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0262631.ref040","article-title":"Use of Canine Olfactory Detection for Covid-19 Testing Study on U.A.E. Trained Detection Dog Sensitivity","volume":"6","author":"D Grandjean","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Vet Sci Res"},{"key":"pone.0262631.ref041","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Consultation on the use of trained dogs for screening COVID-19 cases 2021 [Available from: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/m\/item\/consultation-on-the-use-of-trained-dogs-for-screening-covid-19-cases."},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0262631.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.08.043","article-title":"The estimation of diagnostic accuracy of tests for COVID-19: A scoping review","volume":"81","author":"DB Axell-House","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Infect"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0262631.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e79","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(20)30200-7","article-title":"Insight into the practical performance of RT-PCR testing for SARS-CoV-2 using serological data: a cohort study","volume":"2","author":"Z Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0262631.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0242958","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0242958","article-title":"False-negative results of initial RT-PCR assays for COVID-19: A systematic review","volume":"15","author":"I Arevalo-Rodriguez","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"pone.0262631.ref045","unstructured":"Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention. Calculating SARS-CoV-2 Laboratory Test Percent Positivity: CDC Methods and Considerations for Comparisons and Interpretation. 2021."},{"key":"pone.0262631.ref046","article-title":"False-positive COVID-19 results: hidden problems and costs","author":"E Surkova","year":"2020","journal-title":"The Lancet Respiratory medicine"},{"key":"pone.0262631.ref047","unstructured":"Cohen AN, Kessel B. False positives in reverse transcription PCR testing for SARS-CoV-2. medRxiv [Preprint]. 2020:Available at: https:\/\/www.medrxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.04.26.20080911v1."},{"key":"pone.0262631.ref048","unstructured":"Willman D. Contamination at CDC lab delayed rollout of coronavirus tests 2020 [Available from: https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/investigations\/contamination-at-cdc-lab-delayed-rollout-of-coronavirus-tests\/2020\/04\/18\/fd7d3824-7139-11ea-aa80-c2470c6b2034_story.html."},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0262631.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469 e9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2020.10.003","article-title":"Specificity and positive predictive value of SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid amplification testing in a low-prevalence setting","volume":"27","author":"JP Skittrall","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0262631","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,14]],"date-time":"2022-02-14T13:23:28Z","timestamp":1644845008000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0262631"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Robert Jeenchen","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,14]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,14]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0262631","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1101\/2021.06.10.21257898","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,14]]}}}