{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T20:11:49Z","timestamp":1791663109266,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":144,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]],"date-time":"2023-02-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675382400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PGSD3-404001-2011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PGSD3-404001-2011"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIH grant GM83863"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIH grant GM83863"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004695","name":"University of KwaZulu-Natal","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004695","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NSF CNH2: 2009717"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSF CNH2: 2009717"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NSF Expeditions: 1918770"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSF Expeditions: 1918770"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Resource partitioning promotes coexistence among guild members, and carnivores reduce interference competition through behavioral mechanisms that promote spatio-temporal separation. We analyzed sympatric lion and spotted hyena movements and activity patterns to ascertain the mechanisms facilitating their coexistence within semi-arid and wetland ecosystems. We identified recurrent high-use (revisitation) and extended stay (duration) areas within home ranges, as well as correlated movement-derived measures of inter- and intraspecific interactions with environmental variables. Spatial overlaps among lions and hyenas expanded during the wet season, and occurred at edges of home ranges, around water-points, along pathways between patches of high-use areas. Lions shared more of their home ranges with spotted hyenas in arid ecosystems, but shared more of their ranges with conspecifics in mesic environments. Despite shared space use, we found evidence for subtle temporal differences in the nocturnal movement and activity patterns between the two predators, suggesting a fine localized-scale avoidance strategy. Revisitation frequency and duration within home ranges were influenced by interspecific interactions, after land cover categories and diel cycles. Intraspecific interactions were also important for lions and, important for hyenas were moon illumination and ungulates attracted to former anthrax carcass sites in Etosha, with distance to water in Chobe\/Linyanti. Recursion and duration according to locales of competitor probabilities were similar among female lions and both sexes of hyenas, but different for male lions. Our results suggest that lions and spotted hyenas mediate the potential for interference competition through subtle differences in temporal activity, fine-scale habitat use differentiation, and localized reactive-avoidance behaviors. These findings enhance our understanding of the potential effects of interspecific interactions among large carnivore space-use patterns within an apex predator system and show adaptability across heterogeneous and homogeneous environments. Future conservation plans should emphasize the importance of inter- and intraspecific competition within large carnivore communities, particularly moderating such effects within increasingly fragmented landscapes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0265054","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]],"date-time":"2023-02-03T13:42:51Z","timestamp":1675431771000},"page":"e0265054","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Coursing hyenas and stalking lions: The potential for inter- and intraspecific interactions"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2521-2830","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Nancy A.","family":"Barker","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francois G.","family":"Joubert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marthin","family":"Kasaona","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabriel","family":"Shatumbu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vincent","family":"Stowbunenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kathleen A.","family":"Alexander","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rob","family":"Slotow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8784-9354","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Wayne M.","family":"Getz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0265054.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4169","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.71.10.4169","article-title":"The Compression Hypothesis and Temporal Resource Partitioning","volume":"71","author":"TW Schoener","year":"1974","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/0040-5809(85)90030-9","article-title":"Coexistence of competitors in spatially and temporally varying environments: A look at the combined effects of different sorts of variability","volume":"28","author":"PL Chesson","year":"1985","journal-title":"Theoretical Population Biology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1111\/jzo.12248","article-title":"Spatiotemporal resource partitioning of water sources by African carnivores on Namibian commercial farmlands: Carnivore resource partitioning at water sources","volume":"297","author":"S Edwards","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Zoology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref004","first-page":"253","article-title":"Prey apportionment and related ecological relationships between large carnivores in Kruger National Park.","volume":"65","author":"MGL Mills","year":"1993","journal-title":"Symposium of the Zoological Society, London."},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1017\/S0952836902003230","article-title":"Coexistence of jaguar (Panthera onca) and puma (Puma concolor) in a mosaic landscape in the Venezuelan llanos.","volume":"259","author":"D Scognamillo","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Zool, Lond."},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1038\/nature01934","article-title":"Patterns of predation in a diverse predator\u2013prey system","volume":"425","author":"ARE Sinclair","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0021-8790.2004.00817.x","article-title":"Large predators and their prey in a southern African savanna: a predator\u2019s size determines its prey size range","volume":"73","author":"FGT Radloff","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Animal Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1111\/jzo.12275","article-title":"Spotted hyaenas switch their foraging strategy as a response to changes in intraguild interactions with lions: Intraguild interactions influence diet in large carnivores","volume":"297","author":"S P\u00e9riquet","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Zoology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref009","first-page":"1559","article-title":"Time partitioning among jaguar Panthera onca, puma Puma concolor and ocelot Leopardus pardalis (Carnivora: Felidae) in Costa Rica\u2019s dry and rainforests.","volume":"66","author":"H Herrera","year":"2018","journal-title":"Revista de Biologia Tropical"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.3957\/0379-4369-38.2.93","article-title":"Prey preferences and dietary overlap amongst Africa\u2019s large predators","volume":"38","author":"MW Hayward","year":"2008","journal-title":"South African Journal of Wildlife Research"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1442-9993.2005.01473.x","article-title":"Do wild dogs exclude foxes? Evidence for competition from dietary and spatial overlaps","volume":"30","author":"BD Mitchell","year":"2005","journal-title":"Austral Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1467","DOI":"10.2193\/2006-234","article-title":"Effects of Habitat on Competition Between Kit Foxes and Coyotes","volume":"71","author":"JL Nelson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Wildlife Management"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2656.2007.01287.x","article-title":"Does interference competition with wolves limit the distribution and abundance of coyotes?","volume":"76","author":"KM Berger","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Animal Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.3957\/056.039.0207","article-title":"Temporal Partitioning of Activity in Large African Carnivores: Tests of Multiple Hypotheses.","volume":"39","author":"MW Hayward","year":"2009","journal-title":"South African Journal of Wildlife Research"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1007\/s11284-012-0949-1","article-title":"Coexistence of carnivores in a heterogeneous landscape: habitat selection and ecological niches","volume":"27","author":"P Pereira","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecological Research"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1007\/s13364-017-0318-0","article-title":"Seasonal occupancy of sympatric larger carnivores in the southern San Andres Mountains, south-central New Mexico, USA.","volume":"62","author":"LC Bender","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mammal Research"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1007\/s10531-017-1491-9","article-title":"The importance of fine-scale breeding site selection patterns under a landscape-sharing approach for wolf conservation.","volume":"27","author":"L Llaneza","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biodiversity and Conservation"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1674\/0003-0031(2000)143[0001:AROEDO]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Review of Ecological Determinants of Territoriality within Vertebrate Species","volume":"143","author":"CR Maher","year":"2000","journal-title":"The American Midland Naturalist"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1007\/s004420000448","article-title":"Competition and intraguild predation among three sympatric carnivores","volume":"125","author":"JM Fedriani","year":"2000","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0706.2001.940204.x","article-title":"Resource utilization and interspecific relations of sympatric bobcats and coyotes","volume":"94","author":"JCC Neale","year":"2001","journal-title":"Oikos"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.2007.00310.x","article-title":"Diet and prey profiles of three sympatric large carnivores in Bandipur Tiger Reserve, India","volume":"273","author":"AP Andheria","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Zoology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e34575","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0034575","article-title":"How Does Spatial Study Design Influence Density Estimates from Spatial Capture-Recapture Models?","volume":"7","author":"R Sollmann","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2017.07.005","article-title":"Forced neighbours: Coexistence between jaguars and pumas in a harsh environment","volume":"146","author":"S Astete","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Arid Environments"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0170549","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0170549","article-title":"Snow Leopard and Himalayan Wolf: Food Habits and Prey Selection in the Central Himalayas, Nepal.","volume":"12","author":"M Chetri","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2017.03.016","article-title":"Niche overlap of competing carnivores across climatic gradients and the conservation implications of climate change at geographic range margins","volume":"209","author":"WJ Zielinski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biological Conservation"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-009-9425-x","article-title":"How key habitat features influence large terrestrial carnivore movements: waterholes and African lions in a semi-arid savanna of north-western Zimbabwe","volume":"25","author":"M Valeix","year":"2010","journal-title":"Landscape Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2590","DOI":"10.1890\/12-0017.1","article-title":"Fear of the dark or dinner by moonlight? Reduced temporal partitioning among Africa\u2019s large carnivores","volume":"93","author":"G Cozzi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2619","DOI":"10.1890\/13-0217.1","article-title":"Moving to stay in place: behavioral mechanisms for coexistence of African large carnivores","volume":"94","author":"AT Vanak","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1418","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2656.12231","article-title":"Cheetahs and wild dogs show contrasting patterns of suppression by lions","volume":"83","author":"A Swanson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Animal Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8534","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.2569","article-title":"In the absence of a \u201clandscape of fear\u201d: How lions, hyenas, and cheetahs coexist.","volume":"6","author":"A Swanson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecology and Evolution"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mambio.2015.10.005","article-title":"A potential role for interference competition with lions in den selection and attendance by spotted hyaenas","volume":"81","author":"S P\u00e9riquet","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mammalian Biology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.2616","article-title":"Spatial and temporal avoidance of risk within a large carnivore guild","volume":"7","author":"E Dr\u00f6ge","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecology and Evolution"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s00265-017-2271-y","article-title":"Staying safe from top predators: patterns of co-occurrence and inter-predator interactions","volume":"71","author":"T Ramesh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1086\/282505","article-title":"The Limiting Similarity, Convergence and Divergence of Coexisting Species.","volume":"101","author":"R MacArthur","year":"1967","journal-title":"The American Naturalist"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref035","first-page":"27","article-title":"Resource Partitioning in Ecological Communities.","volume":"185","author":"TW Schoener","year":"1974","journal-title":"Science, New Series."},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.343","article-title":"Mechanisms of Maintenance of Species Diversity","volume":"31","author":"P. Chesson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actao.2010.04.001","article-title":"Niche partitioning and species coexistence in a Neotropical felid assemblage","volume":"36","author":"MS Di Bitetti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Oecologica"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref038","volume-title":"The Spotted Hyena - A Study of Predation and Social Behavior","author":"H. Kruuk","year":"1972"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref039","volume-title":"The Comparative Behavioral Ecology of Two Species","author":"MGL Mills","year":"1990"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref040","volume-title":"The Serengeti lion: a study of predator-prey relations","author":"GB Schaller","year":"1972"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2028.2006.00686.x","article-title":"Activity patterns of reintroduced lion Panthera leo and spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta in the Addo Elephant National Park","volume":"45","author":"MW Hayward","year":"2007","journal-title":"South Africa. African Journal of Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2007.06.018","article-title":"Carrying capacity of large African predators: Predictions and tests","volume":"139","author":"Hayward MW","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biological Conservation"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0587.2009.05745.x","article-title":"Changes in home range size of African lions in relation to pride size and prey biomass in a semi-arid savanna.","volume":"32","author":"AJ Loveridge","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ecography"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2656.2002.00596.x","article-title":"The response of spotted hyaenas to long-term changes in prey populations: functional response and interspecific kleptoparasitism","volume":"71","author":"OP Honer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of Animal Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0310.2010.01833.x","article-title":"Responses of Spotted Hyenas to Lions Reflect Individual Differences in Behavior.","volume":"116","author":"HE Watts","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ethology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.2000.tb01076.x","article-title":"Behavioural correlates of predation by tiger (Panthera tigris), leopard (Panthera pardus) and dhole (Cuon alpinus) in Nagarahole, India.","volume":"250","author":"KU Karanth","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Zoology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1139\/z90-092","article-title":"Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation: a review and prospectus","volume":"68","author":"SL Lima","year":"1990","journal-title":"Canadian Journal of Zoology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1006\/anbe.2000.1433","article-title":"Predator avoidance, breeding experience and reproductive success in endangered cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus","volume":"60","author":"SM Durant","year":"2000","journal-title":"Animal Behaviour"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1006\/anbe.1996.0307","article-title":"Responses of foraging hedgehogs to badger odour","volume":"53","author":"JF Ward","year":"1997","journal-title":"Animal Behaviour"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2656.1998.00202.x","article-title":"Competition refuges and coexistence: an example from Serengeti carnivores","volume":"67","author":"SM Durant","year":"1998","journal-title":"Journal of Animal Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1007\/s00265-018-2481-y","article-title":"Cheetahs modify their prey handling behavior depending on risks from top predators","volume":"72","author":"A Hilborn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref052","first-page":"281","article-title":"Prey Selection and Feeding Habits of the Large Carnivores in the Southern Kalahari.","author":"MGL Mills","year":"1984","journal-title":"Koedoe"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12152","article-title":"The Lion King and the Hyaena Queen: large carnivore interactions and coexistence.","volume":"90","author":"S P\u00e9riquet","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biological Reviews."},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref054","article-title":"Factors Affecting the Ratio of Lions (Panthera leo) to Spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) in Protected Areas of Africa: Competition and\/or Available Prey.","author":"GK Purchase","year":"2004","journal-title":"PhD Dissertation, University of Aberdeen."},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1006\/anbe.1993.1222","article-title":"The commuting system of Serengeti spotted hyaenas: how a predator copes with mirgratory prey. I. Social organization","volume":"46","author":"H Hofer","year":"1993","journal-title":"Animal Behaviour"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2012.08.008","article-title":"Occupancy patterns and niche partitioning within a diverse carnivore community exposed to anthropogenic pressures","volume":"158","author":"P Schuette","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biological Conservation"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1461-0248.2010.01566.x","article-title":"Biomass transformation webs provide a unified approach to consumer-resource modelling: Biomass transformation webs","volume":"14","author":"WM Getz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ecology Letters"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2028.1984.tb00682.x","article-title":"Foraging behaviour and hunting success of lions in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda.","volume":"22","author":"KG Van Orsdol","year":"1984","journal-title":"African Journal of Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1017\/S0952836901000395","article-title":"Factors affecting the hunting success of male and female lions in the Kruger National Park","volume":"253","author":"PJ Funston","year":"2001","journal-title":"Journal of Zoology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2656.2005.00955.x","article-title":"Planning for success: Serengeti lions seek prey accessibility rather than abundance: Prey accessibility in Serengeti lions","volume":"74","author":"JGC Hopcraft","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of Animal Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref061","first-page":"71","article-title":"Ecology and epidemiology of anthrax in the Etosha National Park, Namibia.","volume":"61","author":"PM Lindeque","year":"1994","journal-title":"Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.12.1.675","article-title":"Surveillance and control of anthrax and rabies in wild herbivores and carnivores in Namibia.","volume":"12","author":"HH Berry","year":"1993","journal-title":"Revue Scientifique et Technique de l\u2019Office International des Epizooties."},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref063","first-page":"a1382","article-title":"Seasonal habitat selection by African buffalo Syncerus caffer in the Savuti\u2013Mababe\u2013Linyanti ecosystem of northern Botswana.","volume":"59","author":"K Sianga","year":"2017","journal-title":"Koedoe"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref064","volume-title":"Floodplain vegetation responses to flood regime in the seasonal Okavango Delta, Botswana","author":"of Florida","year":"2009"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref065","article-title":"Spatial heterogeneity in a dynamic wetland: determinants of herbivore distribution in the Okavango Delta and their relevance to conservation.","author":"HLA Bartlam","year":"2010","journal-title":"PhD Dissertation, Bristol University."},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/2051-3933-2-4","article-title":"Applications of step-selection functions in ecology and conservation","volume":"2","author":"H Thurfjell","year":"2014","journal-title":"Movement Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.12559","article-title":"ctmm: an R package for analyzing animal relocation data as a continuous-time stochastic process","volume":"7","author":"JM Calabrese","year":"2016","journal-title":"Methods in Ecology and Evolution"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2006.03.017","article-title":"The package \u201cadehabitat\u201d for the R software: A tool for the analysis of space and habitat use by animals","volume":"197","author":"C. Calenge","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ecological Modelling"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e207","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0000207","article-title":"LoCoH: Nonparameteric Kernel Methods for Constructing Home Ranges and Utilization Distributions.","volume":"2","author":"WM Getz","year":"2007","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/2051-3933-1-2","article-title":"Home range plus: a space-time characterization of movement over real landscapes","volume":"1","author":"AJ Lyons","year":"2013","journal-title":"Movement Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref071","article-title":"Package \u201crgeos.\u201d","author":"R Bivand","year":"2020","journal-title":"CRAN"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref072","article-title":"Topics in Circular Statistics","author":"C Agostinelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circular Statistics"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref073","article-title":"Topics in circular statistics.","author":"SR Jammalamadaka","year":"2001","journal-title":"River Edge, New Jersey: World Scientific;"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref074","article-title":"Package \u201csuncalc.\u201d","author":"B Thieurmel","year":"2019","journal-title":"CRAN"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s40462-016-0082-9","article-title":"Landscape-level movement patterns by lions in western Serengeti: comparing the influence of inter-specific competitors, habitat attributes and prey availability","volume":"4","author":"AM Kittle","year":"2016","journal-title":"Movement Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1645","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2699.2009.02125.x","article-title":"Is current climatic equilibrium a guarantee for the transferability of distribution model predictions? A case study of the spotted hyena","volume":"36","author":"S Varela","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Biogeography"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2656.2010.01717.x","article-title":"Does size matter? An investigation of habitat use across a carnivore assemblage in the Serengeti, Tanzania: Carnivore habitat use in the Serengeti","volume":"79","author":"SM Durant","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Animal Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e96261","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0096261","article-title":"Using Landscape and Bioclimatic Features to Predict the Distribution of Lions, Leopards and Spotted Hyaenas in Tanzania\u2019s Ruaha Landscape.","volume":"9","author":"L Abade","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.06.031","article-title":"Google Earth Engine: Planetary-scale geospatial analysis for everyone.","volume":"202","author":"N Gorelick","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sensing of Environment"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2013.05.007","article-title":"Evaluating the performance of multiple remote sensing indices to predict the spatial variability of ecosystem structure and functioning in Patagonian steppes","volume":"34","author":"JJ Gait\u00e1n","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecological Indicators"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2018.06.029","article-title":"Suitability of NDVI and OSAVI as estimators of green biomass and coverage in a semi-arid rangeland.","volume":"94","author":"RR Fern","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecological Indicators."},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jag.2017.11.005","article-title":"Estimating tree species diversity in the savannah using NDVI and woody canopy cover.","volume":"66","author":"S Madonsela","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.04.041","article-title":"Short term changes in moisture content drive strong changes in Normalized Difference Vegetation Index and gross primary productivity in four Arctic moss communities.","volume":"212","author":"JL May","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sensing of Environment."},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2664.2007.01432.x","article-title":"Modelling the habitat requirements of leopard Panthera pardus in west and central Asia","volume":"45","author":"A Gavashelishvili","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref085","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2656.2011.01913.x","article-title":"Density-dependence vs. density-independence - linking reproductive allocation to population abundance and vegetation greenness","volume":"81","author":"B-J B\u00e5rdsen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Animal Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20130196","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2013.0196","article-title":"Functional analysis of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index curves reveals overwinter mule deer survival is driven by both spring and autumn phenology.","volume":"369","author":"MA Hurley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences."},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref087","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0148780","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0148780","article-title":"Ungulate Reproductive Parameters Track Satellite Observations of Plant Phenology across Latitude and Climatological Regimes.","volume":"11","author":"DC Stoner","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref088","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1374","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.13435","article-title":"Contrasting effects of summer and winter warming on body mass explain population dynamics in a food-limited Arctic herbivore","volume":"23","author":"SD Albon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Global Change Biology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref089","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2173","DOI":"10.1007\/s00484-018-1619-y","article-title":"Impact of climate on the population dynamics of an alpine ungulate: a long-term study of the Tatra chamois Rupicapra rupicapra tatrica","volume":"62","author":"M Ciach","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal of Biometeorology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009769707641","article-title":"Extensions to the k-Means Algorithm for Clustering Large Data Sets with Categorical Values","volume":"2","author":"Z. Huang","year":"1998","journal-title":"Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470316801","volume-title":"Finding Groups in Data, An introduction to Cluster Analysis","author":"L Kaufman","year":"1990"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref092","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2656.12077","article-title":"Risk avoidance in sympatric large carnivores: reactive or predictive","volume":"82","author":"F Broekhuis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Animal Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref093","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.2307\/1936707","article-title":"A theory of habitat selection","volume":"62","author":"ML Rosenzweig","year":"1981","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref094","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0162893","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0162893","article-title":"Niche Partitioning among Mesocarnivores in a Brazilian Wetland.","volume":"11","author":"C Bianchi R de","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0200828","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0200828","article-title":"Spatio-temporal ecology of sympatric felids on Borneo.","volume":"13","author":"AJ Hearn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Evidence for resource partitioning? PLOS ONE"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref096","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mambio.2014.11.004","article-title":"Ecological relationships of black-footed cats (Felis nigripes) and sympatric canids in South Africa.","volume":"80","author":"JF Kamler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mammalian Biology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref097","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1111\/jzo.12053","article-title":"Common and snow leopards share prey, but not habitats: competition avoidance by large predators?: Interactions between two leopard species","volume":"291","author":"S Lovari","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Zoology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref098","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1111\/jzo.12192","article-title":"Coexistence of the tiger and the common leopard in a prey-rich area: the role of prey partitioning: Interactions between tigers and common leopards","volume":"295","author":"S Lovari","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Zoology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref099","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-015-3311-9","article-title":"Coexistence of sympatric carnivores in relatively homogeneous Mediterranean landscapes: functional importance of habitat segregation at the fine-scale level","volume":"179","author":"C Soto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1080\/21658005.2018.1504406","article-title":"Spatial and temporal separation between the golden jackal and three sympatric carnivores in a human-modified landscape in central Bulgaria","volume":"28","author":"H Tsunoda","year":"2018","journal-title":"Zoology and Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10344-017-1159-5","article-title":"Spatio-temporal niche partitioning between the African lion (Panthera leo) and spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) in western African savannas.","volume":"64","author":"EA Sogbohossou","year":"2018","journal-title":"European Journal of Wildlife Research"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1093\/jmammal\/gyx030","article-title":"Niche compression intensifies competition between reintroduced American martens (Martes americana) and fishers (Pekania pennanti).","volume":"98","author":"PJ Manlick","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Mammalogy"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1006\/jhev.2000.0441","article-title":"A study of carnivore competition in riparian and open habitats of modern savannas and its implications for hominid behavioral modelling","volume":"40","author":"M. Dominguez-Rodrigo","year":"2001","journal-title":"Journal of Human Evolution"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2744","DOI":"10.1890\/07-0260.1","article-title":"Predator Hunting Mode and Habitat Domain Alter Nonconsumptive Effects in Predator-Prey Interactions","volume":"88","author":"EL Preisser","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11450","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.4572","article-title":"Habitat segregation between brown bears and gray wolves in a human-dominated landscape","volume":"8","author":"C Milleret","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecology and Evolution"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2028.2005.00574.x","article-title":"Competitive interactions between spotted hyenas and lions in the Etosha National Park","volume":"43","author":"M Trinkel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Namibia. African Journal of Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2937","DOI":"10.1007\/s10531-013-0564-7","article-title":"Density and habitat use of lions and spotted hyenas in northern Botswana and the influence of survey and ecological variables on call-in survey estimation.","volume":"22","author":"G Cozzi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biodiversity and Conservation"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e100202","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0100202","article-title":"Landscape Suitability in Botswana for the Conservation of Its Six Large African Carnivores.","volume":"9","author":"HEK Winterbach","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref109","first-page":"466","volume-title":"Model Systems in Behavioral Ecology. Princeton and","author":"S. Creel","year":"2001"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref110","first-page":"293","volume-title":"Cats of the world: biology, conservation, and management","author":"J. Eisenberg","year":"1986"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2004.01.013","article-title":"Livestock predation by lions (Panthera leo) and other carnivores on ranches neighboring Tsavo National Parks, Kenya.","volume":"119","author":"BD Patterson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biological Conservation"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-3454(10)42006-9","article-title":"Intraspecific Variation in the Behavioral Ecology of a Tropical Carnivore, the Spotted Hyena.","author":"KE Holekamp","year":"2010","journal-title":"Advances in the Study of Behavior. Elsevier"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref113","volume-title":"Hyaenas - status survey and conservation action plan","author":"MGL Mills","year":"1998"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1111\/jzo.12504","article-title":"Drivers of diurnal rest site selection by spotted hyaenas","volume":"304","author":"JNT Kushata","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Zoology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5331","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.7424","article-title":"Recolonizing carnivores: Is cougar predation behaviorally mediated by bears?","volume":"11","author":"KN Engebretsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecology and Evolution"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1111\/jzo.12781","article-title":"Spatial and temporal overlaps between leopards (Panthera pardus) and their competitors in the African large predator guild.","volume":"311","author":"K Rafiq","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Zool"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1093\/jmammal\/gyw016","article-title":"Niche partitioning at the edge of the range: a multidimensional analysis with sympatric martens","volume":"97","author":"P Monterroso","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Mammalogy"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref118","first-page":"a1406","article-title":"The vegetation and wildlife habitats of the Savuti-Mababe-Linyanti ecosystem, northern Botswana.","volume":"59","author":"K Sianga","year":"2017","journal-title":"Koedoe"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1280","DOI":"10.1644\/09-MAMM-A-392.1","article-title":"Spatial distribution of lion kills determined by the water dependency of prey species","volume":"91","author":"WF de Boer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Mammalogy"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref120","first-page":"1","article-title":"Land Cover Change in Northern Botswana: The Influence of Climate, Fire, and Elephants on Semi-Arid Savanna Woodlands.","volume":"73","author":"J Fox","year":"2017","journal-title":"Land"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref121","first-page":"177","volume-title":"Cougar: Ecology and Conservation.","author":"P. Beier","year":"2010"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4757-4716-4_11","volume-title":"Carnivore behavior, ecology and evolution.","author":"ME Sunquist","year":"1989"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anbehav.2006.12.014","article-title":"Feeding habitat selection by hunting leopards Panthera pardus in a woodland savanna: prey catchability versus abundance","volume":"74","author":"G Balme","year":"2007","journal-title":"Animal Behaviour"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1139\/cjz-2020-0050","article-title":"Living on the edge: spatial response of coyotes (Canis latrans) to wolves (Canis lupus) in the subarctic.","volume":"99","author":"K Klauder","year":"2021","journal-title":"Can J Zool"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.12794","article-title":"The landscape of anthropogenic mortality: how African lions respond to spatial variation in risk","volume":"54","author":"AJ Loveridge","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1890\/ES15-00106.1","article-title":"Recursive movement patterns: review and synthesis across species.","volume":"6","author":"O Berger-Tal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecosphere"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1500","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-3472(86)80220-2","article-title":"Social organization of the spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta).","volume":"34","author":"LG Frank","year":"1986","journal-title":"I. Demography. Animal Behaviour"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1644\/1545-1542(2003)084<0243:DPADOW>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Daily Patterns and Duration of Wolf Activity in the Bia\u0142owie\u017ca Forest, Poland","volume":"84","author":"JR Theuerkauf","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Mammalogy"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22285","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0022285","article-title":"Fear of Darkness, the Full Moon and the Nocturnal Ecology of African Lions","volume":"6","author":"C Packer","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1111\/eth.12617","article-title":"Dodging the moon: The moon effect on activity allocation of prey in the presence of predators.","volume":"123","author":"LP Pratas\u2010Santiago","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ethology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1268","DOI":"10.1093\/beheco\/aru122","article-title":"Optimal hunting conditions drive circalunar behavior of a diurnal carnivore","volume":"25","author":"F Broekhuis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Behavioral Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1007\/s00265-020-02831-2","article-title":"Fear of the dark? A mesopredator mitigates large carnivore risk through nocturnality, but humans moderate the interaction","volume":"74","author":"PM Haswell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0213671","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0213671","article-title":"Prey availability and temporal partitioning modulate felid coexistence in Neotropical forests.","volume":"14","author":"F Santos","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mambio.2018.04.009","article-title":"Effect of humans and pumas on the temporal activity of ocelots in protected areas of Atlantic Forest","volume":"92","author":"RL Massara","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mammalian Biology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anbehav.2014.01.030","article-title":"Movement-based analysis of interactions in African lions","volume":"90","author":"S Benhamou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Animal Behaviour"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2028.1991.tb00993.x","article-title":"Optimal hunting group size: the need for lions to defend their kills against loss to spotted hyaenas","volume":"29","author":"SM Cooper","year":"1991","journal-title":"African Journal of Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0030-1299.2005.13533.x","article-title":"The effect of prey abundance and foraging tactics on the population dynamics of a social, territorial carnivore, the spotted hyena","volume":"108","author":"OP H\u00f6ner","year":"2005","journal-title":"Oikos"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.2008.00506.x","article-title":"Interspecific competition influences reproduction in spotted hyenas","volume":"276","author":"HE Watts","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Zoology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1644\/08-MAMM-A-136.1","article-title":"Ecological Determinants of Survival and Reproduction in the Spotted Hyena","volume":"90","author":"HE Watts","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Mammalogy"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"zow073","DOI":"10.1093\/cz\/zow073","article-title":"Lions, hyenas and mobs (oh my!).","author":"KDS Lehmann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Current Zoology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1093\/beheco\/11.6.624","article-title":"Living with the enemy: avoidance of hyenas and lions by cheetahs in the Serengeti","volume":"11","author":"SM Durant","year":"2000","journal-title":"Behavioral Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anbehav.2010.04.026","article-title":"Functions of vigilance behaviour in a social carnivore, the spotted hyaena, Crocuta crocuta","volume":"80","author":"WM Pangle","year":"2010","journal-title":"Animal Behaviour"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2664.2011.02099.x","article-title":"Behavioural adjustments of a large carnivore to access secondary prey in a human-dominated landscape: Wild prey, livestock and lion ecology","volume":"49","author":"M Valeix","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Ecology"},{"key":"pone.0265054.ref144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02644","DOI":"10.1002\/ecy.2644","article-title":"Behavior\u2010specific habitat selection by African lions may promote their persistence in a human\u2010dominated landscape","volume":"100","author":"JP Suraci","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecology"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0265054","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,6]],"date-time":"2023-12-06T00:51:24Z","timestamp":1701823884000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0265054"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Marco","family":"Apollonio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]]},"references-count":144,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0265054","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1101\/2022.02.23.481665","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,3]]}}}