{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T05:46:47Z","timestamp":1790401607891,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,14]],"date-time":"2022-03-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1647216000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001861","name":"Forskningsr\u00e5det f\u00f6r Arbetsliv och Socialvetenskap","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2017-01741"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017-01741"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001861","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Systembolagets Research Council on Alcohol","award":["2018-0019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018-0019"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) is one of the most common screening instruments for emotional and behavioral problems in children and adolescents. Although exploratory factor analyses support the originally proposed 5-factor structure of SDQ as well as a 3-factor model, the evidence from confirmatory factor analyses is more mixed. Some of the difficulties items in SDQ are positively worded and it has been proposed that this leads to method effects, i.e. these items share variance that is due to the method used rather than to a substantive construct. Also, there seems to be minor factors in some subscales. This study tests a series of 3- and 5- factor models pertaining to the factor structure of SDQ, also considering method effects and minor factors. The sample consists of a nationally representative cohort of Swedish adolescents born in 2001 (n = 5549). Results show a relatively better fit of the 5-factor model compared with the 3-factor model although neither of these had a satisfactory fit. Model fit was improved when specifying cross-loadings of the positively worded difficulties items on the prosocial scale as well as minor factors on the hyperactivity scale. Although no model provided a completely satisfactory fit to the data, the results show that the 5-factor model performs better than the 3-factor model and has an acceptable fit. We conclude that for the purposes of epidemiological research, SDQ has acceptable factorial validity, provided that researchers consider method effects and minor factors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0265481","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,14]],"date-time":"2022-03-14T17:34:56Z","timestamp":1647279296000},"page":"e0265481","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["The factor structure of the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire in a national sample of Swedish adolescents: Comparing 3 and 5-factor models"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8963-1743","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Patrik","family":"Karlsson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Larm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Johan","family":"Svensson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonas","family":"Raninen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0265481.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01545.x","article-title":"The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: a research note","volume":"38","author":"R. Goodman","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Child Psychol Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref002","unstructured":"http:\/\/www.sdqinfo.com\/."},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2012.02.011","article-title":"Testing competing models of the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire\u2019s (SDQ) factor structure for the parent-informant instrument","volume":"52","author":"C McCrory","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pers Individ Dif"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1007\/s10567-010-0071-2","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the parent and teacher versions of the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire for 4- to 12-year-olds: a review","volume":"13","author":"LL Stone","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-200111000-00015","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire","volume":"40","author":"R. Goodman","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022658222914","article-title":"Comparing the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire and the Child Behavior Checklist: is small beautiful?","volume":"27","author":"R Goodman","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Abnorm Child Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1080\/j.1440-1614.2004.01428.x","article-title":"Comparing psychiatric diagnoses generated by the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire with diagnoses made by clinicians","volume":"38","author":"J Mathai","year":"2004","journal-title":"Aust N Z J Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1037\/1040-3590.19.2.189","article-title":"Examining the structural validity of the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) in a U.S sample of custodial grandmothers","volume":"19","author":"PA Palmieri","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychol Assess"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/s007870050086","article-title":"Psychometric properties of a Swedish version of the \u201cStrengths and Difficulties Questionnaire\u201d","volume":"8","author":"H Smedje","year":"1999","journal-title":"Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1080\/08039480310002697","article-title":"Validity of the Swedish version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ-Swe)","volume":"57","author":"M Malmberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nord J Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1080\/08039488.2016.1184309","article-title":"The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) for preschool children\u2014a Swedish validation","volume":"70","author":"BM Gustafsson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nord J Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1080\/08039480801984032","article-title":"The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire as a screening instrument in a community sample of high school seniors in Sweden","volume":"62","author":"CG Svedin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nord J Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9450.2008.00668.x","article-title":"Self-reported emotional and behavioral problems in Swedish 14 to 15-year-old adolescents: A study with the self-report version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire","volume":"49","author":"LG Lundh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Scand J Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2007.03.022","article-title":"The psychometric properties of the self-reported SDQ\u2014an analysis of Swedish data based on the Rasch model","volume":"43","author":"C. Hagquist","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pers Individ Dif"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1002\/mpr.1364","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire from five European countries","volume":"21","author":"CA Essau","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int J Methods Psychiatr Res"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-012-9683-y","article-title":"A confirmatory approach to examining the factor structure of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ): a large scale cohort study","volume":"41","author":"J Niclasen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Abnorm Child Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1080\/j.1440-1614.2004.01427.x","article-title":"Australian data and psychometric properties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire","volume":"38","author":"DJ Hawes","year":"2004","journal-title":"Aust N Z J Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-012-9696-6","article-title":"The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ): the factor structure and scale validation in U.S. adolescents","volume":"41","author":"JP He","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Abnorm Child Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-003-0298-2","article-title":"The strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ)","volume":"12","author":"P Muris","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e32025","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0032025","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the Danish Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire: the SDQ assessed for more than 70,000 raters in four different cohorts","volume":"7","author":"J Niclasen","year":"2012","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1002","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2011.02372.x","article-title":"The Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)-self report. An analysis of its structure in a multiethnic urban adolescent sample","volume":"52","author":"J Richter","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Child Psychol Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1304","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2008.01942.x","article-title":"Construct validity of the five-factor Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire in pre-, early, and late adolescence","volume":"49","author":"B Van Roy","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Child Psychol Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191120918929","article-title":"Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: Psychometric properties and normative data for Spanish 5-to 17-year-olds","volume":"28","author":"G Espa\u00f1ol-Mart\u00edn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Assessment"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1027\/1015-5759.23.2.105","article-title":"The factor structure of the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire","volume":"23","author":"D Mellor","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur J Psychol Assess"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1027\/1015-5759.24.1.43","article-title":"Confirmatory factor analysis of the adolescent self-report Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire","volume":"24","author":"A Percy","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur J Psychol Assess"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1017\/S2045796014000201","article-title":"Does the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire\u2013self report yield invariant measurements across different nations? Data from the International Child Mental Health Study Group","volume":"24","author":"D Stevanovic","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0265481.ref027","first-page":"159","article-title":"Revisiting the factor structure of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: United States, 2001","volume":"43","author":"WC Dickey","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1523","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-015-0729-x","article-title":"New evidence of factor structure and measurement invariance of the SDQ across five European nations","volume":"24","author":"J Ortu\u00f1o-Sierra","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.88.5.879","article-title":"Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies","volume":"88","author":"PM Podsakoff","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Appl Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref030","volume-title":"Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research","author":"TA Brown","year":"2006"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1207\/s15328007sem1303_6","article-title":"Further investigating method effects associated with negatively worded items on self-report surveys","volume":"13","author":"C DiStefano","year":"2006","journal-title":"Struct Equ Modeling"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.70.4.810","article-title":"Positive and negative global self-esteem: a substantively meaningful distinction or artifactors?","volume":"70","author":"HW Marsh","year":"1996","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1348\/014466510X498174","article-title":"Confirmatory factor analysis and factorial invariance analysis of the adolescent self-report Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: How important are method effects and minor factors?","volume":"50","author":"PM van de Looij-Jansen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Br J Clin Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0120930","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0120930","article-title":"The context dependency of the self-report version of the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ): A cross-sectional study between two administration settings","volume":"10","author":"H Hoofs","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0152202","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0152202","article-title":"The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ): factor structure and gender equivalence in Norwegian adolescents","volume":"11","author":"T B\u00f8e","year":"2016","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.111.3.490","article-title":"Model modifications in covariance structure analysis: the problem of capitalization on chance","volume":"11","author":"RC MacCallum","year":"1992","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2010.05.005","article-title":"The Strenghts and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Early evidence of its reliability and validity in a community sample of Italian children","volume":"49","author":"D Di Riso","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pers Individ Dif"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref038","volume-title":"Mplus User\u2019s Guide","author":"LK Muth\u00e9n","year":"1998\u20132017"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10705519909540118","article-title":"Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives","volume":"6","author":"LT Hu","year":"1999","journal-title":"Struct Equ Modeling"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref040","volume-title":"Statistical methods for the social and behavioural sciences","author":"D.B. Flora","year":"2018"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1177\/0049124101029004003","article-title":"Improper solutions in structural equation models: Causes, consequences, and strategies","volume":"29","author":"F Chen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sociol Methods Res"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-032813-153700","article-title":"Exploratory structural equation modeling: An integration of the best features of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis","volume":"10","author":"HW Marsh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annu Rev Clin Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191118780461","article-title":"Is small still beautiful for the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire? Novel findings using exploratory structural equation modeling","volume":"2","author":"E. Garrido","year":"2020","journal-title":"Assessment"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191119858416","article-title":"Validity aspects of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) adolescent self-report and Parent-Report versions among Dutch adolescents","volume":"28","author":"J Vugteveen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Assessment"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1080\/10705510903008204","article-title":"Exploratory structural equation modeling","volume":"16","author":"T Asparouhov","year":"2009","journal-title":"Struct Equ Modeling"},{"key":"pone.0265481.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1476","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191118804082","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the Dutch strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) in adolescent community and clinical populations","volume":"27","author":"J Vugteveen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Assessment"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0265481","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,14]],"date-time":"2022-03-14T17:35:37Z","timestamp":1647279337000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0265481"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Godfred O.","family":"Boateng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,14]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,14]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0265481","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,14]]}}}