{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T20:04:08Z","timestamp":1791576248369,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":93,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,7]],"date-time":"2022-04-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1649289600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002790","name":"Canadian Network for Research and Innovation in Machining Technology, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["03793\u20132014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["03793\u20132014"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002790","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002790","name":"Canadian Network for Research and Innovation in Machining Technology, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002790","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003151","name":"Fonds de Recherche du Qu\u00e9bec - Nature et Technologies","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003151","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100011094","name":"Public Health Agency of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100011094","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p><jats:italic>Ixodes scapularis<\/jats:italic>ticks are expanding their range in parts of northeastern North America, bringing with them pathogens of public health concern. While rodents like the white-footed mouse,<jats:italic>Peromyscus leucopus<\/jats:italic>, are considered the primary reservoir of many emerging tick-borne pathogens, the contribution of birds, as alternative hosts and reservoirs, to local transmission cycles has not yet been firmly established. From 2016 to 2018, we collected host-seeking ticks and examined rodent and bird hosts for ticks at 48 sites in a park where blacklegged ticks are established in Quebec, Canada, in order to characterize the distribution of pathogens in ticks and mammalian and avian hosts. We found nearly one third of captured birds (n = 849) and 70% of small mammals (n = 694) were infested with<jats:italic>I<\/jats:italic>.<jats:italic>scapularis<\/jats:italic>. Five bird and three mammal species transmitted<jats:italic>Borrelia burgdorferi<\/jats:italic>to feeding larvae (n larvae tested = 2257) and we estimated that about one fifth of the<jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>.<jats:italic>burgdorferi<\/jats:italic>-infected questing nymphs in the park acquired their infection from birds, the remaining being attributable to mice. Ground-foraging bird species were more parasitized than other birds, and species that inhabited open habitat were more frequently infested and were more likely to transmit<jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>.<jats:italic>burgdorferi<\/jats:italic>to larval ticks feeding upon them. Female birds were more likely to transmit infection than males, without age differentiation, whereas in mice, adult males were more likely to transmit infection than juveniles and females. We also detected<jats:italic>Borrelia miyamotoi<\/jats:italic>in larvae collected from birds, and<jats:italic>Anaplasma phagocytophilum<\/jats:italic>from a larva collected from a white-footed mouse. This study highlights the importance of characterising the reservoir potential of alternative reservoir hosts and to quantify their contribution to transmission dynamics in different species assemblages. This information is key to identifying the most effective host-targeted risk mitigation actions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0266527","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,7]],"date-time":"2022-04-07T17:51:45Z","timestamp":1649353905000},"page":"e0266527","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Transmission patterns of tick-borne pathogens among birds and rodents in a forested park in southeastern Canada"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7579-9492","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ariane","family":"Dumas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Catherine","family":"Bouchard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonia","family":"Dibernardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pierre","family":"Drapeau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"L. Robbin","family":"Lindsay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicholas H.","family":"Ogden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrick A.","family":"Leighton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,7]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0266527.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.14745\/ccdr.v45i04a02","article-title":"Increased risk of tick-borne diseases with climate change","volume":"45","author":"C Bouchard","year":"2019","journal-title":"CCDR"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0266527.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-0903-5","article-title":"Association between body size and reservoir competence of mammals bearing Borrelia burgdorferi at an endemic site in the northeastern United States","volume":"8","author":"AG Barbour","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0266527.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1093\/ilar\/ilx005","article-title":"Tick-Borne Zoonoses in the United States: Persistent and Emerging Threats to Human Health","volume":"58","author":"RJ Eisen","year":"2017","journal-title":"ILAR J"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcdb.2016.07.002","article-title":"Infection resistance and tolerance in Peromyscus spp., natural reservoirs of microbes that are virulent for humans","volume":"61","author":"AG Barbour","year":"2017","journal-title":"Semin Cell Dev Biol"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0266527.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2841","DOI":"10.1890\/07-1047.1","article-title":"Impact of host community composition on Lyme disease risk","volume":"89","author":"K LoGiudice","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0266527.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a115306","article-title":"Comparing the relative potential of rodents as reservoirs of the Lyme disease spirochete (Borrelia burgdorferi)","volume":"130","author":"TN Mather","year":"1989","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0266527.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e80724","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0080724","article-title":"Poleward expansion of the white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) under climate change: implications for the spread of Lyme disease","volume":"8","author":"E Roy-Dufresne","year":"2013","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"issue":"24","key":"pone.0266527.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8366","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02656-15","article-title":"Avian migrants facilitate invasions of Neotropical ticks and tick-borne pathogens into the United States","volume":"81","author":"EB Cohen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl Environ Microbiol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0266527.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2015.06.004","article-title":"How far north are migrant birds transporting the tick Ixodes scapularis in Canada? Insights from stable hydrogen isotope analyses of feathers","volume":"6","author":"N Ogden","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0266527.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1780","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01982-07","article-title":"Role of migratory birds in introduction and range expansion of Ixodes scapularis ticks and of Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Canada","volume":"74","author":"NH Ogden","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl Environ Microbiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0266527.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1645\/GE-2874.1","article-title":"Widespread dispersal of Borrelia burgdorferi\u2013infected ticks collected from songbirds across Canada","volume":"98","author":"JD Scott","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Parasitol"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/S1438-4221(02)80029-7","article-title":"The key roles of selection and migration in the ecology of Lyme borreliosis","volume":"291","author":"K Kurtenbach","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int J Med Microbiol"},{"issue":"24","key":"pone.0266527.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8265","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01585-10","article-title":"Genotypic diversity of Borrelia burgdorferi strains detected in Ixodes scapularis larvae collected from North American songbirds","volume":"76","author":"RJ Brinkerhoff","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl Environ Microbiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0266527.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/42.3.445","article-title":"Reservoir competence of native North American birds for the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi","volume":"42","author":"HS Ginsberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0118146","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0118146","article-title":"Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato Spirochetes in Wild Birds in Northwestern California: Associations with Ecological Factors, Bird Behavior and Tick Infestation","volume":"10","author":"EA Newman","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0266527.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/35.3.270","article-title":"Participation of birds (Aves) in the emergence of Lyme disease in southern Maine","volume":"35","author":"PW Rand","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0602.000205","article-title":"Competence of American robins as reservoir hosts for Lyme disease spirochetes","volume":"6","author":"D Richter","year":"2000","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1890\/090062","article-title":"Do birds affect Lyme disease risk? Range expansion of the vector-borne pathogen Borrelia burgdorferi","volume":"9","author":"RJ Brinkerhoff","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front Ecol Environ"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0233733100","article-title":"The ecology of infectious disease: effects of host diversity and community composition on Lyme disease risk","volume":"100","author":"K LoGiudice","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195073133.001.0001","volume-title":"Ecological dynamics of tick-borne zoonoses","author":"DE Sonenshine","year":"1994"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0266527.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2184","DOI":"10.1139\/z00-162","article-title":"Modeling the role of songbirds and rodents in the ecology of Lyme disease","volume":"78","author":"AR Giardina","year":"2000","journal-title":"Can J Zool"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0266527.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-016-3731-1","article-title":"A quantitative synthesis of the role of birds in carrying ticks and tick-borne pathogens in North America","volume":"182","author":"SR Loss","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"issue":"52","key":"pone.0266527.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18159","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0405763102","article-title":"An ecological approach to preventing human infection: vaccinating wild mouse reservoirs intervenes in the Lyme disease cycle","volume":"101","author":"JI Tsao","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0266527.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-3932-7","article-title":"Evaluation of fluralaner as an oral acaricide to reduce tick infestation in a wild rodent reservoir of Lyme disease","volume":"13","author":"J Pelletier","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0266527.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2018.02.008","article-title":"The tick project: testing environmental methods of preventing tick-borne diseases","volume":"34","author":"F Keesing","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0266527.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1603\/ME12141","article-title":"Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection in American robins and gray catbirds: an assessment of reservoir competence and disease in captive wildlife","volume":"50","author":"E Johnston","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0266527.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1518","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2018.07.002","article-title":"Three genetically distinct clades of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Ixodes scapularis","volume":"9","author":"CN Trost","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0266527.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1089\/153036601750137624","article-title":"A relapsing fever group spirochete transmitted by Ixodes scapularis ticks","volume":"1","author":"GA Scoles","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0266527.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2009.09-0208","article-title":"Niche partitioning of Borrelia burgdorferi and Borrelia miyamotoi in the same tick vector and mammalian reservoir species","volume":"81","author":"AG Barbour","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0266527.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2015.02.006","article-title":"Borrelia miyamotoi infection in nature and in humans","volume":"21","author":"PJ Krause","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0266527.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2016.12.012","article-title":"Borrelia miyamotoi in vectors and hosts in The Netherlands","volume":"8","author":"A Wagemakers","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0266527.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.1603\/ME10075","article-title":"High-prevalence Borrelia miyamotoi infection among wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) in Tennessee","volume":"47","author":"M Scott","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"pone.0266527.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2012.06.008","article-title":"Transovarial transmission of Borrelia spirochetes by Ixodes scapularis: a summary of the literature and recent observations","volume":"4","author":"L Rollend","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref034","unstructured":"INSPQ. R\u00e9sultats annuels de surveillance de la maladie de Lyme. 2020 [cited 2022 Jan 28]. https:\/\/www.inspq.qc.ca\/zoonoses\/maladie-de-lyme\/resultats-de-surveillance"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0266527.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2011.03.005","article-title":"Associations between Ixodes scapularis ticks and small mammal hosts in a newly endemic zone in southeastern Canada: implications for Borrelia burgdorferi transmission","volume":"2","author":"C Bouchard","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0266527.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101833","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2021.101833","article-title":"Fine-scale determinants of the spatiotemporal distribution of Ixodes scapularis in Quebec (Canada)","volume":"13","author":"A Dumas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1139\/z89-073","article-title":"Response of the white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) to the transition between disturbed and undisturbed habitats","volume":"67","author":"AV Linzey","year":"1989","journal-title":"Can J Zool"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref038","unstructured":"Robert M. Second atlas of the breeding birds of southern Qu\u00e9bec. Montr\u00e9al: Regroupement Qu\u00e9becOiseaux, Canadian Wildlife Service (Environment and Climate Change Canada), and Bird Studies Canada; 2019."},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0266527.ref039","first-page":"91","article-title":"Attraction of other Species by Bluethroat Luscinia svecica Song Playback During Autumn Migration: An Experimental Test Using Bird-Ringing Data","volume":"64","author":"IDL Hera","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ardeola"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0266527.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20200458","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2020.0458","article-title":"Tape lures swell bycatch on a Mediterranean island harbouring illegal bird trapping","volume":"16","author":"M Sebastianelli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol Lett"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0266527.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0310.1992.tb00842.x","article-title":"Interspecific Response to Playback of Bird Song","volume":"90","author":"AP M\u00f8ller","year":"1992","journal-title":"Ethology"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref042","volume-title":"North American Banding Council Point Reyes Station","author":"Council NAB","year":"2001"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref043","volume-title":"Identification guide to North American birds: a compendium of information on identifying, ageing, and sexing \"near-passerines\" and passerines in the hand","author":"P. Pyle","year":"1997"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-38.2.231","article-title":"Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) and spirochetes (spirochaetaceae: spirochaetales) recovered from birds on a Georgia Barrier Island","volume":"38","author":"LA Durden","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clifford CM, Anastos G, Van der Borght-Elbl A. The larval ixodid ticks of the eastern United States (Acarina-Ixodidae). Entomological Society of America; 1961.","DOI":"10.4182\/BHJB6050.2-1.3"},{"issue":"suppl_2","key":"pone.0266527.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/15.suppl2.1","article-title":"The genus Ixodes in the United States: a scanning electron microscope study and key to the adults","volume":"15","author":"JE Keirans","year":"1978","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Durden LA, Keirans JE, others. Nymphs of the genus Ixodes (Acari: Ixodidae) of the United States: taxonomy, identification key, distribution, hosts, and medical\/veterinary importance. Entomological Society of America; 1996.","DOI":"10.4182\/MAMR9602"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0266527.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3164","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.42.7.3164-3168.2004","article-title":"Multiplex real-time PCR for detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Borrelia burgdorferi","volume":"42","author":"JW Courtney","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00151","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00151-17","article-title":"Detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia microti, Borrelia burgdorferi, Borrelia miyamotoi, and Powassan virus in ticks by a multiplex real-time reverse transcription-PCR assay","volume":"2","author":"R Tokarz","year":"2017","journal-title":"MSphere"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref050","first-page":"294","article-title":"DNA primers for amplification of mitochondrial Cytochrome C oxidase subunit I from diverse metazoan invertebrates","volume":"3","author":"O Folmer","year":"1994","journal-title":"Mol Mar Biol Biotechnol"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref051","volume-title":"R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing","author":"Team RC","year":"2020"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0266527.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1577\/H04-066.1","article-title":"Estimation of pathogen prevalence in pooled samples using maximum likelihood methods and open-source software","volume":"17","author":"CJ Williams","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Aquat Anim Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.32614\/RJ-2017-066","article-title":"glmmTMB Balances Speed and Flexibility Among Packages for Zero-inflated Generalized Linear Mixed Modeling","volume":"9","author":"ME Brooks","year":"2017","journal-title":"R J"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref054","first-page":"14","article-title":"Recommended usage of selected terms in ecological and epidemiological parasitology","volume":"13","author":"L Margolis","year":"1982","journal-title":"Bull Can Soc Zool"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/32.2.138","article-title":"Reservoir competence of the rice rat (Rodentia: Cricetidae) for Borrelia burgdorferi","volume":"32","author":"M Levin","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2011.11.004","article-title":"Synchronous phenology of juvenile Ixodes scapularis, vertebrate host relationships, and associated patterns of Borrelia burgdorferi ribotypes in the midwestern United States","volume":"3","author":"SA Hamer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref057","unstructured":"Cornell Lab of Ornithology. All About Birds. 2022 [cited 2022 Jan 28]. https:\/\/www.allaboutbirds.org"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0266527.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-7-231","article-title":"History and complexity in tick-host dynamics: discrepancies between \u2018real\u2019 and \u2018visible\u2019 tick populations","volume":"7","author":"AD Dobson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref059","first-page":"1","article-title":"Reviewing molecular adaptations of Lyme borreliosis spirochetes in the context of reproductive fitness in natural transmission cycles","volume":"40","author":"JI Tsao","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet Res"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-87458-6","volume-title":"Mixed effects models and extensions in ecology with R","author":"AF Zuur","year":"2009"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-01989-1","volume-title":"Spatial Ecology and Conservation Modeling","author":"R Fletcher","year":"2018"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/bty633","article-title":"ape 5.0: an environment for modern phylogenetics and evolutionary analyses in R","volume":"35","author":"E Paradis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref063","unstructured":"Hartig F. DHARMa: Residual Diagnostics for Hierarchical (Multi-Level \/ Mixed) Regression Models [Internet]. 2021. https:\/\/CRAN.R-project.org\/package=DHARMa"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0266527.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro1475","article-title":"Fundamental processes in the evolutionary ecology of Lyme borreliosis","volume":"4","author":"K Kurtenbach","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0266527.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.12049","article-title":"Varying effort in capture\u2013recapture studies","volume":"4","author":"MG Efford","year":"2013","journal-title":"Methods Ecol Evol"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref066","unstructured":"Efford M. Habitat masks in the package secr. 2019."},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0266527.ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1595","DOI":"10.1111\/ecog.03415","article-title":"Phylogeny and species traits predict bird detectability","volume":"41","author":"P S\u00f3lymos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecography"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1093\/auk\/119.2.414","article-title":"A removal model for estimating detection probabilities from point-count surveys","volume":"119","author":"GL Farnsworth","year":"2002","journal-title":"The Auk"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198506492.001.0001","author":"ST Buckland","year":"2001","journal-title":"Introduction to distance sampling: estimating abundance of biological populations"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0266527.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.12106","article-title":"Calibrating indices of avian density from non-standardized survey data: making the most of a messy situation","volume":"4","author":"P S\u00f3lymos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Methods Ecol Evol"},{"key":"pone.0266527.ref071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1114","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.1114","article-title":"A comparison of observation-level random effect and Beta-Binomial models for modelling overdispersion in Binomial data in ecology & evolution","volume":"3","author":"XA Harrison","year":"2015","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"issue":"40","key":"pone.0266527.ref072","first-page":"354","article-title":"Canadian Lyme Sentinel surveillance report, 2019","volume":"46","author":"C Guillot","year":"2020","journal-title":"CCDR"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0266527.ref073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-7-183","article-title":"The prevalence of Borrelia miyamotoi infection, and co-infections with other Borrelia spp. in Ixodes scapularis ticks collected in Canada","volume":"7","author":"A Dibernardo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0266527.ref074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-5-231","article-title":"Associations of passerine birds, rabbits, and ticks with Borrelia miyamotoi and Borrelia andersonii in Michigan, USA","volume":"5","author":"SA Hamer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2202.151218","article-title":"High Prevalence of Borrelia miyamotoi among Adult Blacklegged Ticks from White-Tailed Deer","volume":"22","author":"S Han","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0266527.ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2012.06.007","article-title":"Exploring gaps in our knowledge on Lyme borreliosis spirochaetes\u2013updates on complex heterogeneity, ecology, and pathogenicity","volume":"4","author":"J Franke","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.12050","article-title":"Predicting the rate of invasion of the agent of Lyme disease Borrelia burgdorferi","volume":"50","author":"NH Ogden","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Appl Ecol"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0266527.ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1757","DOI":"10.1086\/379725","article-title":"Inability of a variant strain of Anaplasma phagocytophilum to infect mice","volume":"188","author":"RF Massung","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0266527.ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1604","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1110.041329","article-title":"Anaplasma phagocytophilum in white-tailed deer","volume":"11","author":"RF Massung","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2714","article-title":"Of ticks, mice and men: understanding the dual-host lifestyle of Lyme disease spirochaetes","volume":"10","author":"JD Radolf","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0266527.ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1093\/jme\/tjw235","article-title":"Avian and habitat characteristics influence tick infestation among birds in Illinois","volume":"54","author":"CM Parker","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0266527.ref082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/30.4.740","article-title":"Relative importance of bird species as hosts for immature Ixodes dammini (Acari: Ixodidae) in a suburban residential landscape of southern New York State","volume":"30","author":"G Battaly","year":"1993","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0266527.ref083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2322","DOI":"10.1139\/z92-311","article-title":"Borrelia burgdorferi in Ixodes dammini (Acari: Ixodidae) feeding on birds in Lyme, Connecticut, USA","volume":"70","author":"LA Magnarelli","year":"1992","journal-title":"Can J Zool"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0266527.ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01674-08","article-title":"Differential role of passerine birds in distribution of Borrelia spirochetes, based on data from ticks collected from birds during the postbreeding migration period in Central Europe","volume":"75","author":"L Dubska","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl Environ Microbiol"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0266527.ref085","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-5347(96)10039-2","article-title":"Ecological immunology: costly parasite defences and trade-offs in evolutionary ecology","volume":"11","author":"BC Sheldon","year":"1996","journal-title":"Trends Ecol Evol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1656\/1092-6194(2004)011[0143:ITOBTA]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Immature ticks on birds: temporal abundance and reinfestation","volume":"11","author":"WC Scharf","year":"2004","journal-title":"Northeast Nat"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref087","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0149345","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0149345","article-title":"Evidence for host-genotype associations of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto","volume":"11","author":"S Mechai","year":"2016","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0266527.ref088","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3244","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02636-10","article-title":"Investigation of genotypes of Borrelia burgdorferi in Ixodes scapularis ticks collected during surveillance in Canada","volume":"77","author":"NH Ogden","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl Environ Microbiol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0266527.ref089","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1644\/BER-025","article-title":"Peromyscus leucopus abundance and acorn mast: population fluctuation patterns over 20 years","volume":"85","author":"SP Elias","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Mammal"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0266527.ref090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1007\/s10144-008-0094-4","article-title":"Comparative population dynamics of Peromyscus leucopus in North America: influences of climate, food, and density dependence","volume":"51","author":"G Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Popul Ecol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0266527.ref091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1111\/jvec.12161","article-title":"Simulation of climate-tick-host-landscape interactions: Effects of shifts in the seasonality of host population fluctuations on tick densities","volume":"40","author":"H-H Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Vector Ecol"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0266527.ref092","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-0400-5","article-title":"Interactions between Borrelia burgdorferi and ticks","volume":"18","author":"C Kurokawa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0266527.ref093","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1007\/s00248-019-01442-3","article-title":"Getting under the birds\u2019 skin: tissue tropism of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. in naturally and experimentally infected avian hosts","volume":"79","author":"AC Norte","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microb Ecol"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0266527","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,19]],"date-time":"2023-11-19T19:43:56Z","timestamp":1700423036000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0266527"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Brian","family":"Stevenson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,7]]},"references-count":93,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,7]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0266527","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,7]]}}}