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The gluten-free diet was associated with a reduced anti-tetanus IgG response, and it increased the relative abundance of the anti-inflammatory<jats:italic>Bifidobacterium<\/jats:italic>significantly in some of the mice. Antibiotics also led to gut microbiota changes and lower initial vaccine titer. After a second vaccination, neither gluten-free diet nor antibiotics reduced the titers. In the spleen, the gluten-free diet significantly increased regulatory T cell (T<jats:sub>reg<\/jats:sub>) fractions, CD4<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>T cell activation, and tolerogenic dendritic cell fractions and activation, which extend the downregulating effect of the T<jats:sub>reg<\/jats:sub>. Therefore, the systemic effect of the gluten-free diet seems mainly tolerogenic. Antibiotics reduced the fractions of CD4<jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>T and B cells in the mesenteric lymph nodes. These results suggest that vaccine response in mice is under influence of their diet, the gut microbiota and the interplay between them. However, a gluten-free diet seems to work through mechanisms different from those induced by antibiotics. Therefore, diet should be considered when testing vaccines in mice and developing vaccines for humans.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0266719","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,13]],"date-time":"2022-04-13T17:49:30Z","timestamp":1649872170000},"page":"e0266719","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Effect of gluten-free diet and antibiotics on murine gut microbiota and immune response to tetanus vaccination"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Pernille","family":"Kihl","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lukasz","family":"Krych","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ling","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lars 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