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Despite being enormous in the aggregate, potential losses due to SLR depend on mitigation, adaptation, and exposure and are highly uneven in their distribution across coastal cities. We provide the first analysis of how changes in exposure (<jats:italic>how<\/jats:italic>and<jats:italic>when<\/jats:italic>) have unfolded over more than a century of coastal urban development in the United States. We do so by leveraging new historical settlement layers from the Historical Settlement Data Compilation for the U.S. (HISDAC-US) to examine building patterns within and between the SLR zones of the conterminous United States since the early twentieth century. Our analysis reveals that SLR zones developed faster and continue to have higher structure density than non-coastal, urban, and inland areas. These patterns are particularly prominent in locations affected by hurricanes. However, density levels in historically less-developed coastal areas are now quickly converging on early settled SLR zones, many of which have reached building saturation. These \u201csaturation effects\u201d suggest that adaptation polices targeting existing buildings and developed areas are likely to grow in importance relative to the protection of previously undeveloped land.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0269741","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,3]],"date-time":"2022-08-03T17:29:48Z","timestamp":1659547788000},"page":"e0269741","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Creeping disaster along the U.S. coastline: Understanding exposure to sea level rise and hurricanes through historical development"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3677-0635","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Anna E.","family":"Braswell","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9180-4853","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Stefan","family":"Leyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dylan S.","family":"Connor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Johannes H.","family":"Uhl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0269741.ref001","author":"IPCC","year":"2013"},{"key":"pone.0269741.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate1979","article-title":"Future flood losses in major coastal cities","volume":"3","author":"S Hallegatte","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature Climate Change"},{"key":"pone.0269741.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate2961","article-title":"Millions projected to be at risk from sea-level rise in the continental United States","volume":"6","author":"ME Hauer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature Climate Change"},{"key":"pone.0269741.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3292","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1222469111","article-title":"Coastal flood damage and adaptation costs under 21st century sea-level rise","volume":"111","author":"J Hinkel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"pone.0269741.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0227436","article-title":"Modeling migration patterns in the USA under sea level rise","volume":"15","author":"C Robinson","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"pone.0269741.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124020","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/abb266","article-title":"Sea level rise and coastal flooding threaten affordable housing","volume":"15","author":"MK Buchanan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environmental Research Letters"},{"key":"pone.0269741.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-017-1963-7","article-title":"Rapid escalation of coastal flood exposure in US municipalities from sea level rise","volume":"142","author":"S Kulp","year":"2017","journal-title":"Climatic Change"},{"key":"pone.0269741.ref008","first-page":"197","volume-title":"The New Global Frontier","author":"D Balk","year":"2012"},{"key":"pone.0269741.ref009","author":"M Pesaresi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atlas of the human planet 2017: Global exposure to natural hazards"},{"key":"pone.0269741.ref010","unstructured":"Union of Concerned Scientists. 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