{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]],"date-time":"2026-03-07T20:12:09Z","timestamp":1772914329206,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]],"date-time":"2022-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658707200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000200","name":"United States Agency for International Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["AID-OAA-F-16-00093"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AID-OAA-F-16-00093"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000200","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010269","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["WT 102350\/Z\/13"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WT 102350\/Z\/13"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009053","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Institute for Population and Reproductive Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["0PP1099295"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0PP1099295"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009053","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"\nBackground<\/jats:title>\nUnderstanding mosquito biting behaviours is important for designing and evaluating protection methods against nuisance biting and mosquito-borne diseases (e.g. dengue, malaria and zika). We investigated the preferred biting sites by Aedes aegypti<\/jats:italic> and Anopheles arabiensis<\/jats:italic> on adult volunteers in standing or sleeping positions; and estimated the theoretical protection limits affordable from protective clothing or repellent-treated footwear.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n\nMethods<\/jats:title>\nAdult volunteers dressed in shorts and t-shirts were exposed to infection-free laboratory-reared mosquitoes inside screened chambers from 6am to noon (for day-biting Ae<\/jats:italic>. aegypti<\/jats:italic>) or 6pm to midnight (night-biting An<\/jats:italic>. arabiensis<\/jats:italic>). Attempted bites on different body parts were recorded. Comparative observations were made on same volunteers while wearing sandals treated with transfluthrin, a vapour-phase pyrethroid that kills and repels mosquitoes.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n\nResults<\/jats:title>\nAn<\/jats:italic>. arabiensis<\/jats:italic> bites were mainly on the lower limbs of standing volunteers (95.9% of bites below the knees) but evenly-distributed over all exposed body surfaces when the volunteers were on sleeping positions (only 28.8% bites below knees). Ae<\/jats:italic>. aegypti<\/jats:italic> bites were slightly concentrated on lower limbs of standing volunteers (47.7% below knees), but evenly-distributed on sleeping volunteers (23.3% below knees). Wearing protective clothing that leave only hands and head uncovered (e.g. socks + trousers + long-sleeved shirts) could theoretically prevent 78\u201383% of bites during sleeping, and at least 90% of bites during non-sleeping hours. If the feet are also exposed, protection declines to as low as 36.3% against Anopheles<\/jats:italic>. The experiments showed that transfluthrin-treated sandals reduced An<\/jats:italic>. arabiensis<\/jats:italic> by 54\u201386% and Ae<\/jats:italic>. aegypti<\/jats:italic> by 32\u201339%, but did not change overall distributions of bites.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n\nConclusion<\/jats:title>\nBiting by An<\/jats:italic>. arabiensis<\/jats:italic> and Ae<\/jats:italic>. aegypti<\/jats:italic> occur mainly on the lower limbs, though this proclivity is less pronounced in the Aedes<\/jats:italic> species. However, when hosts are on sleeping positions, biting by both species is more evenly-distributed over the exposed body surfaces. High personal protection might be achieved by simply wearing long-sleeved clothing, though protection against Anopheles<\/jats:italic> particularly requires covering of feet and lower legs. The transfluthrin-treated footwear can reduce biting risk, especially by An<\/jats:italic>. arabiensis<\/jats:italic>. These findings could inform the design and use of personal protection tools (both insecticidal and non-insecticidal) against mosquitoes and mosquito-borne diseases.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0271833","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]],"date-time":"2022-07-25T17:29:50Z","timestamp":1658770190000},"page":"e0271833","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Observing the distribution of mosquito bites on humans to inform personal protection measures against malaria and dengue vectors"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0122-0550","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Winifrida P.","family":"Mponzi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0144-0422","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Johnson K.","family":"Swai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emmanuel W.","family":"Kaindoa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Khamis","family":"Kifungo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alvaro E.","family":"Eiras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Elis P. A.","family":"Batista","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nancy S.","family":"Matowo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peter O.","family":"Sangoro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marceline F.","family":"Finda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Arnold S.","family":"Mmbando","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tegemeo","family":"Gavana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2789-0261","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Halfan S.","family":"Ngowo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fredros O.","family":"Okumu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0271833.ref001","article-title":"Integrating vector control across diseases.","author":"N Golding","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMC Med."},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref002","article-title":"The effect of malaria control on Plasmodium falciparum in Africa between 2000 and 2015","author":"S Bhatt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2177","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2030243","article-title":"Efficacy of Wolbachia-infected mosquito deployments for the control of dengue.","volume":"384","author":"A Utarini","year":"2021","journal-title":"N Engl J Med. Mass Medical Soc"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-8394-5","article-title":"Impact of dengue-preventive behaviors on Aedes immature production in Bang Kachao, Samut Prakan Province, Thailand: A cross-sectional study.","volume":"20","author":"P Waewwab","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref005","first-page":"1","article-title":"A greener vision for vector control: The example of the singapore dengue control programme.","volume":"14","author":"S Sim","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ento-120811-153618","article-title":"Host Preferences of Blood-Feeding Mosquitoes","volume":"58","author":"W Takken","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annu Rev Entomol"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref007","first-page":"104","article-title":"Comparisons of Human-Landing Catches and Odor-Baited Entry Traps for Sampling Malaria Vectors in Senegal.","author":"I Dia","year":"2005"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref008","first-page":"80","article-title":"Selection of biting sites on man by two malaria mosquito species","volume":"51","author":"R De Jong","year":"1995","journal-title":"Entomol Exp Appl"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref009","first-page":"1","article-title":"Attractiveness of volatiles from different body parts to the malaria mosquito Anopheles coluzzii is affected by deodorant compounds","author":"NO Verhulst","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2012.01.001","article-title":"Feeding strategies of anthropophilic mosquitoes result in increased risk of pathogen transmission","volume":"28","author":"TW Scott","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref011","first-page":"1","article-title":"Biting behaviour of African malaria vectors: 1. where do the main vector species bite on the human body?.","author":"L Braack","year":"2015","journal-title":"Paracite and Vectors"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref012","article-title":"Selection of biting sites on a human host by Anopheles gambiae s.s., An. arabiensis and An. quadriannulatus","author":"T Dekker","year":"1998","journal-title":"Entomol Exp Appl"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref013","first-page":"97","article-title":"Landing sites on the human body preferred by Aedes albopictus","volume":"18","author":"Y Shirai","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Am Mosq Control Assoc"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.30875\/60123dd4-en","volume-title":"World Malaria Report 2020","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2020"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2015.11.010","article-title":"Insecticide Resistance in African Anopheles Mosquitoes: A Worsening Situation that Needs Urgent Action to Maintain Malaria Control","volume":"32","author":"H Ranson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1000401","article-title":"A research agenda for malaria eradication: Vector control.","volume":"8","author":"The malERA Consultative Group on Vector Control","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref017","volume-title":"Residual Transmission of Malaria: An Old Issue for New Approaches.","author":"L Durnez","year":"2011"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.apar.2018.01.003","article-title":"Expanding the Vector Control Toolbox for Malaria Elimination: A Systematic Review of the Evidence.","author":"YA Williams","year":"2018","journal-title":"Advances in Paracitology"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-3623(78)90023-X","volume":"9","author":"W Wouters","year":"1978","journal-title":"Action of pyrethroids. Gen Pharmacol"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref020","article-title":"The excitant and repellent Effects on Mosquitos of sub-lethal Contacts with DDT","author":"JS Kennedy","year":"1947","journal-title":"Bull Entomol Res"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/0048-3575(80)90065-6","article-title":"Neural and Behavioral Correlates of Pyrethroid and DDT-Type Poisoning in the House Fly, Musca domestica L","volume":"147","author":"ME Adams","year":"1980","journal-title":"Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-020-03215-7","article-title":"Evaluation of personal protection afforded by repellent-treated sandals against mosquito bites in south-eastern Tanzania.","volume":"19","author":"OP Sangoro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Malar J."},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref023","first-page":"1","article-title":"Evaluation of a simple polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) -based membrane for blood-feeding of malaria and dengue fever vectors in the laboratory.Paracite and vectors.","author":"DJ Siria","year":"2018"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref024","first-page":"1","article-title":"Eave ribbons treated with the spatial repellent, transfluthrin, can e ff ectively protect against indoor-biting and outdoor-biting malaria mosquitoes.","author":"AS Mmbando","year":"2018","journal-title":"Malar J."},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref025","first-page":"1","article-title":"Methods and indicators for measuring patterns of human exposure to malaria vectors.","volume":"19","author":"A Monroe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref026","article-title":"Going beyond personal protection against mosquito bites to eliminate malaria transmission: Population suppression of malaria vectors that exploit both human and animal blood.","volume":"2","author":"GF Killeen","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ Glob Heal"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-10-80","article-title":"Increased proportions of outdoor feeding among residual malaria vector populations following increased use of insecticide-treated nets in rural Tanzania.","volume":"10","author":"TL Russell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref028","first-page":"1","article-title":"Outdoor host seeking behaviour of Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes following initiation of malaria vector control on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea.","author":"MR Reddy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref029","first-page":"1","article-title":"Outdoor biting by Anopheles mosquitoes on Bioko Island does not currently impact on malaria control.","author":"J Bradley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0104967","article-title":"Human Exposure to Early Morning Anopheles funestus Biting Behavior and Personal Protection Provided by Long-Lasting Insecticidal Nets.","volume":"9","author":"N Moiroux","year":"2014","journal-title":"PloS one"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref031","first-page":"295","article-title":"arabiensis and An. quadriannulatus","volume":"2","author":"T Dekker","year":"1998","journal-title":"Entomol Exp Appl"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref032","first-page":"324","article-title":"Preferred biting sites of Culex pipiens fatigans on adult Burmese males.","volume":"40","author":"LS Self","year":"1969","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15086","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1820646116","article-title":"Mosquito feeding behavior and how it influences residual malaria transmission across Africa","volume":"116","author":"E Sherrard-Smith","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref034","first-page":"1","article-title":"Feasibility of repellent use in a context of increasing outdoor transmission: a qualitative study in rural Tanzania.","author":"O Sangoro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0217414","article-title":"Linking human behaviours and malaria vector biting risk in south-eastern Tanzania.","volume":"14","author":"MF Finda","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref036","first-page":"1","article-title":"Community perceptions on outdoor malaria transmission in Kilombero Valley, Southern Tanzania.","author":"IR Moshi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref037","article-title":"Outdoor-sleeping and other night-time activities in northern Ghana: implications for residual transmission and malaria prevention Outdoor-sleeping and other night-time activities in northern Ghana: implications for residual transmission and malaria prev.","author":"A Monroe","year":"2015","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref038","article-title":"Why use of interventions targeting outdoor biting mosquitoes will be necessary to achieve malaria elimination.","author":"NJ Govella","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front Physiol"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref039","first-page":"556","article-title":"Effectiveness of controlled-release personal-use arthropod repellents and permethrin-impregnated clothing in the field","volume":"3","author":"RK Gupta","year":"1987","journal-title":"J Am Mosq Control Assoc"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-3-81","article-title":"New protective battle-dress impregnated against mosquito vector bites.","volume":"3","author":"C Pennetier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2010.06.004","article-title":"Microencapsulated citronella oil for mosquito repellent finishing of cotton textiles.","volume":"104","author":"MMM Specos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref042","first-page":"241","article-title":"Field efficacy of four insect repellent products against vector mosquitoes in a tropical environment","volume":"16","author":"HH Yap","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Am Mosq Control Assoc"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-39.3.541","article-title":"Field evaluation of repellent formulations against daytime and nighttime biting mosquitoes in a tropical rainforest in northern Australia","volume":"39","author":"SP Frances","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref044","article-title":"Odour-mediated host-seeking behaviour of the Afro-tropical malaria vector Anopheles gambiae Giles","author":"BGJ Knols","year":"1996","journal-title":"Wageningen University and Research"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref045","article-title":"The Strategic Framework for Malaria Social and Behaviour Change Communication 2018\u20132030.","author":"To End Malaria RBMP","year":"2018","journal-title":"US Pres Malar Initiat"},{"key":"pone.0271833.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-13-1","article-title":"Strategic roles for behaviour change communication in a changing malaria landscape","volume":"13","author":"H Koenker","year":"2014","journal-title":"Malar J"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0271833","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]],"date-time":"2022-07-25T17:30:35Z","timestamp":1658770235000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0271833"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Ahmed Ibrahim","family":"Hasaballah","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0271833","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]]}}}