{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T13:01:16Z","timestamp":1779886876894,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,18]],"date-time":"2022-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1668729600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000139","name":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP-C-16-014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP-C-16-014"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000139","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The purpose of this study was to evaluate and compare the decontamination efficacy of liquid formaldehyde solutions for three soil types (sand, loam, and clay) against spores of <jats:italic>Bacillus anthracis (B<\/jats:italic>.<jats:italic>a<\/jats:italic>.<jats:italic>)<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Bacillus atrophaeus<\/jats:italic>. Approximately 1 x 10<jats:sup>8<\/jats:sup> colony forming units were inoculated into each sample. Through a series of six bench-scale experiments, two concentrations and two volumes of liquid formaldehyde solution were then added to the soil samples and allowed to remain in contact for either 24 or 48 hours. Decontamination efficacy was assessed at either 22\u00b0 or 10\u00b0C with or without lids atop the sample jars. Complete inactivation (no spores recovered from the soil samples, typically providing &gt; 7 log reduction) of <jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>.<jats:italic>a<\/jats:italic>. occurred in all soil types in five of the six tests, while complete inactivation of <jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>atrophaeus<\/jats:italic> was achieved in all soil types for three of the six tests. The results demonstrated a higher probability of complete inactivation of spores for samples that were covered, samples that received the higher volume of formaldehyde, and those contaminated with <jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>.<jats:italic>a<\/jats:italic>. Overall, the use of liquid formaldehyde solution (2.5\u20135%) was highly effective in inactivating entire spore populations (typically &gt; 10<jats:sup>7<\/jats:sup> CFU) for both <jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>.<jats:italic>a<\/jats:italic>. and <jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>atrophaeus<\/jats:italic> in the soil matrices studied. Covering the soil after application would allow for less formaldehyde solution to be used without impacting the overall efficacy of the process. The data from this study may aid in the selection of appropriate decontamination parameters when using liquid formaldehyde for soil remediation. The data may also aid in the decision to use <jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>atrophaeus<\/jats:italic> as a surrogate for <jats:italic>B<\/jats:italic>.<jats:italic>a<\/jats:italic>. when performing further decontamination studies using liquid formalin solutions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0277941","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,18]],"date-time":"2022-11-18T18:26:14Z","timestamp":1668795974000},"page":"e0277941","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Effectiveness of formaldehyde in various soil types as a wide area decontamination approach for Bacillus anthracis spores"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"William","family":"Richter","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michelle","family":"Sunderman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zachary","family":"Willenberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6544-329X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Michael","family":"Calfee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shannon","family":"Serre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6316-9418","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Joseph P.","family":"Wood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,18]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3990","key":"pone.0277941.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1126\/science.172.3990.1303","article-title":"Ecology of anthrax","volume":"172","author":"G.B. Van Ness","year":"1971","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"36","key":"pone.0277941.ref002","first-page":"295","article-title":"The ecology of anthrax spores: tough but not invincible.","author":"D.C Dragon","year":"1995","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0277941.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2005.02736.x","article-title":"Spores of Bacillus subtilis: their resistance to and killing by radiation, heat and chemicals","volume":"101","author":"P. Setlow","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol"},{"key":"pone.0277941.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2009.08.003","article-title":"The ecology of Bacillus anthracis","volume":"306","author":"M. Hugh-Jones","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Aspects Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0277941.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/1751-0147-52-7","article-title":"Anthrax outbreak in a Swedish beef cattle herd-1st case in 27 years: Case report","volume":"52","author":"S.S. Lewerin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta. Vet. Scand"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0277941.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-019-0435-4","article-title":"The global distribution of Bacillus anthracis and associated anthrax risk to humans, livestock and wildlife","volume":"4","author":"C.J. Carlson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0277941.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0906.020377","article-title":"Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis spores","volume":"9","author":"E.A. Spotts Whitney","year":"2003","journal-title":"Emerging Infect. Dis"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0277941.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4045","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.8b05274","article-title":"Review of decontamination techniques for the inactivation of Bacillus anthracis and other spore-forming bacteria associated with building or outdoor materials","volume":"53","author":"J.P. Wood","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0277941.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2005.02686.x","article-title":"Decontamination assessment of Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus subtilis, and Geobacillus stearothermophilus spores on indoor surfaces using a hydrogen peroxide gas generator","volume":"99","author":"J.V. Rogers","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0277941.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2007.03332.x","article-title":"Formaldehyde gas inactivation of Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus subtilis, and Geobacillus stearothermophilus spores on indoor surface materials","volume":"103","author":"J.V. Rogers","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0277941.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1177\/153567600801300103","article-title":"Inactivation of Francisella tularensis Schu S4 in a biological safety cabinet using hydrogen peroxide fumigation","volume":"13","author":"J.V. Rogers","year":"2008","journal-title":"Applied Biosafety"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0277941.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1111\/lam.12487","article-title":"Inactivation of Burkholderia pseudomallei on environmental surfaces using spray-applied, common liquid disinfectants","volume":"61","author":"M.W. Calfee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0277941.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2003","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.03445-15","article-title":"Evaluation of the efficacy of methyl bromide in the decontamination of building and interior materials contaminated with Bacillus anthracis spores","volume":"82","author":"J.P. Wood","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"pone.0277941.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2017.11.027","article-title":"Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis spores to decontaminate subway railcar and related materials via the fogging of peracetic acid and hydrogen peroxide sporicidal liquids","volume":"206","author":"W.R. Richter","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manage."},{"key":"pone.0277941.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1262","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2011.04980.x","article-title":"Efficacy of liquid spray decontaminants for inactivation of Bacillus anthracis spores on building and outdoor materials","volume":"110","author":"J.P. Wood","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol"},{"key":"pone.0277941.ref016","volume-title":"Evaluation of liquid and foam technologies for the inactivation of Bacillus anthracis spores on topsoil.","author":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency","year":"2010"},{"key":"pone.0277941.ref017","volume-title":"Decontamination of indoor and outdoor materials with aqueous chlorine dioxide solutions.","author":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency","year":"2012"},{"key":"pone.0277941.ref018","volume-title":"Decontamination of soil contaminated with Bacillus anthracis spores: Technology Evaluation Report.","author":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency","year":"2013"},{"key":"pone.0277941.ref019","volume-title":"Assessment of the decontamination of soil contaminated with Bacillus anthracis spores using chlorine dioxide gas, methyl bromide or activated sodium persulfate.","author":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency","year":"2017"},{"key":"pone.0277941.ref020","first-page":"111684","article-title":"Decontamination of soil contaminated at the surface with Bacillus anthracis spores using dry thermal treatment","volume":"280","author":"J.P. Wood","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Manage"},{"key":"pone.0277941.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4167","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.60.11.4167-4171.1994","article-title":"Formaldehyde solution effectively inactivates spores of Bacillus anthracis on the Scottish island of Gruinard","volume":"77","author":"R.J. Manchee","year":"1994","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0277941.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2865","DOI":"10.1099\/mic.0.2007\/016154-0","article-title":"Long-term persistence of virulent Yersinia pestis in soil","volume":"154","author":"S. Ayyadurai","year":"2008","journal-title":"Microbiol."},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0277941.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0138953","article-title":"Environmental attributes influencing the distribution of Burkholderia pseudomallei in Northern Australia.","volume":"10","author":"A.L. Baker","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0277941.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1472-765X.2012.03237.x","article-title":"The effects of environmental conditions on persistence and inactivation of Brucella suis on building material surfaces","volume":"54","author":"M.W. Calfee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0277941.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3405","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.15468","article-title":"Evaluation of environmental conditions as a decontamination approach for SARS-CoV-2 when applied to common library, archive, and museum-related materials","volume":"132","author":"W.R. Richter","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbio."},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0277941.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1089\/apb.21.926975","article-title":"Decontamination of Bacillus spores with formaldehyde vapor under varied environmental conditions","volume":"26","author":"Y.W. Choi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Biosaf"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0277941","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,18]],"date-time":"2022-11-18T18:26:36Z","timestamp":1668795996000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0277941"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Peter","family":"Setlow","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,18]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,18]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0277941","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,18]]}}}