{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T21:56:17Z","timestamp":1784238977818,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,11]],"date-time":"2023-01-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1673395200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We introduce a novel approach to assess habitual comparison processes, while distinguishing between different types of comparison standards. Several comparison theories (e.g., social) suggest that self-evaluations use different standards to inform self-perception and are associated with wellbeing and personality. We developed the Comparison Standards Scale for Appearance (CSS-A) to examine self-reported engagement with social, temporal, criteria-based, dimensional, and counterfactual comparisons for upward and downward standards in relation to appearance. The scale was completed by three hundred participants online alongside measures of appearance schemas, social comparison evaluations, depression, anxiety, stress, self-esteem, physical self-concept, narcissism, and perfectionism. The CSS-A was found to reliably assess individual differences in upward and downward comparison frequency and affective impact for multiple comparison standards. In line with theory, CSS-A upward comparisons were more frequent than downward comparisons and coincided with negative (versus positive) affective impact. Comparison intensity (i.e., comparison frequency \u00d7 discrepancy) predicted negative and positive affective impact for upward and downward comparisons, respectively. This relationship was partially mediated by appearance concern for upward comparisons (a composite of appearance schemas and physical self-concept), yet moderated by negativity for downward comparisons (a composite of depression, anxiety, stress, and self-esteem). We offer a framework for measuring the comparison process that warrants further research on underlying comparison processes, for which the CSS(-A) and experience sampling methods should serve as useful tools.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0280072","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,11]],"date-time":"2023-01-11T18:41:50Z","timestamp":1673462510000},"page":"e0280072","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["How we compare: A new approach to assess aspects of the comparison process for appearance-based standards and their associations with individual differences in wellbeing and personality measures"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6740-6166","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Peter A.","family":"McCarthy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Meyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mitja D.","family":"Back","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nexhmedin","family":"Morina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,11]]},"reference":[{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0280072.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691620966788","article-title":"Comparisons Inform Me Who I Am: A General Comparative-Processing Model of Self-Perception.","volume":"16","author":"N Morina","year":"2021","journal-title":"Perspectives on Psychological Science"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0280072.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1002\/cpp.2452","article-title":"Exploring the association of social comparison with depression and anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"27","author":"PA McCarthy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clinical psychology & psychotherapy"},{"key":"pone.0280072.ref003","article-title":"How do I know how I am doing? 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