{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T23:00:26Z","timestamp":1790377226730,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]],"date-time":"2023-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1689552000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Non-typhoidal<jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>(NTS) infections remain a significant public health challenge especially in sub-Saharan Africa. NTS disease is endemic in Kenya and is associated with sporadic fatal outbreaks in several regions of the country with poor resource setting. Data is limited on background exposure of NTS in the population in endemic areas and the general immune status of the community most affected by NTS. The aim of the study was to determine the proportion of children exposed to<jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>Enteritidis or<jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>Typhimurium O antigen among the apparently healthy children and patients and the associated host and environmental factors among children attending selected healthcare facilities in Mukuru, Nairobi County, Kenya. A cross-sectional case-control study was conducted among patients and apparently healthy participants aged 0\u20135 years. Blood was collected and centrifuged to obtain serum. The serum was used to test for the presence of antibodies (IgA, IgG, IgM) against NTS using ELISA. A questionnaire was administered to obtain relevant demographic, socio-economic and healthcare utilization information. A total of 382 children were recruited into the study. The NTS seroprevalence was 12.6%. Among the apparently healthy participants, mean age of those exposed to NTS was 36 months and those not exposed was 27 months. Among patients, the mean age was 39 months and those not exposed was 30 months. The seroprevalence of NTS infection among the apparently healthy was significantly associated with cooking water, washing water and age of the child. Treating water using chlorine or boiling method was identified as being protective against contracting<jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic>Typhimurium\/Enteritidis. Among the patients, the proportion of exposure was significantly associated with keeping animals and the chicken count. There is a high exposure to NTS among young children below five years of age and the population has developed immunity to the disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0288015","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]],"date-time":"2023-07-17T17:27:41Z","timestamp":1689614861000},"page":"e0288015","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Seroprevalence of non-typhoidal Salmonella disease and associated factors in children in Mukuru settlement in Nairobi County, Kenya"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0602-2740","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Schola K.","family":"Peter","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4535-2846","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Joshua M.","family":"Mutiso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mercy","family":"Ngetich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cecilia","family":"Mbae","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samuel","family":"Kariuki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]]},"reference":[{"issue":"9835","key":"pone.0288015.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2489","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(11)61752-2","article-title":"Invasive non-typhoidal salmonella disease: an emerging and neglected tropical disease in Africa","volume":"379","author":"NA Feasey","year":"2012","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0288015.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1128\/ecosalplus.ESP-0007-2018","article-title":"Invasive Nontyphoidal Salmonella Disease in Africa.","volume":"8","author":"JJ Gilchrist","year":"2019","journal-title":"EcoSal Plus."},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0288015.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.0c00842","article-title":"Recombinant Human Secretory IgA Induces Salmonella Typhimurium Agglutination and Limits Bacterial Invasion into Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissues.","volume":"7","author":"AF Richards","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Infect Dis."},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0288015.ref004","first-page":"632","volume":"21","author":"H Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dec"},{"key":"pone.0288015.ref005","unstructured":"Cheng-Hsun Chiu and Lin-Hui Su,. Salmonella, Non-Typhoidal Species (S. Choleraesuis, S. Enteritidis, S. Hadar, S. Typhimurium). Available from: http:\/\/www.antimicrobe.org\/b258.asp#r2"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0288015.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-020-4849-7","article-title":"Factors associated with Salmonella infection in patients with gastrointestinal complaints seeking health care at Regional Hospital in Southern Highland of Tanzania.","volume":"20","author":"FA Ngogo","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis."},{"key":"pone.0288015.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805384","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.805384","article-title":"Prevalence, Serotype Distribution and Antimicrobial Resistance of Non-Typhoidal Salmonella in Hospitalized Patients in Conghua District of Guangzhou","volume":"12","author":"B Gong","year":"2022","journal-title":"China. Front Cell Infect Microbiol"},{"key":"pone.0288015.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2019.00187","article-title":"S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium Harboring SPI-1 and SPI-2 Are the Predominant Serotypes Associated With Human Salmonellosis in Saudi Arabia","volume":"9","author":"MF Alghoribi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Cell Infect Microbiol"},{"key":"pone.0288015.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2667","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.02667","article-title":"Multistate Outbreaks of Foodborne Illness in the United States Associated With Fresh Produce From 2010 to 2017.","volume":"10","author":"CK Carstens","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Microbiol."},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0288015.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedneo.2013.01.010","article-title":"Nontyphoid Salmonella Infection: Microbiology, Clinical Features, and Antimicrobial Therapy.","volume":"54","author":"HM Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatr Neonatol."},{"issue":"suppl 4","key":"pone.0288015.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S317","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/civ711","article-title":"Epidemiology and Genomics of Invasive Nontyphoidal Salmonella Infections in Kenya","volume":"61","author":"S Kariuki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0288015.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.21-0762","article-title":"Haque MdA, Chisti MJ, Ahmed T, Faruque ASG. Nontyphoidal Salmonella among Children under 5 Years Old in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia in the Global Enteric Multicenter Study","volume":"106","author":"R Das","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0288015.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0008440","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008440","article-title":"High relatedness of invasive multi-drug resistant non-typhoidal Salmonella genotypes among patients and asymptomatic carriers in endemic informal settlements in Kenya.","volume":"14","author":"S Kariuki","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis."},{"key":"pone.0288015.ref014","author":"WHO","year":"2018","journal-title":"World Health Organization: Salmonella (non-typhoidal)."},{"key":"pone.0288015.ref015","first-page":"1312","author":"JD Stanaway","year":"2017","journal-title":"The global burden of non-typhoidal Salmonella invasive disease: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study"},{"issue":"1860","key":"pone.0288015.ref016","first-page":"20170901","article-title":"Identifying climate drivers of infectious disease dynamics: recent advances and challenges ahead","volume":"284","author":"CJE Metcalf","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc Biol Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0288015.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20310","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-56688-1","article-title":"Distinct climate influences on the risk of typhoid compared to invasive non-typhoid Salmonella disease in Blantyre, Malawi.","volume":"9","author":"D Thindwa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci Rep."},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0288015.ref018","first-page":"498","volume":"30","author":"AH Haselbeck","year":"2017","journal-title":"Current perspectives on invasive nontyphoidal Salmonella disease: Curr Opin Infect Dis."},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0288015.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00002-15","article-title":"Epidemiology, Clinical Presentation, Laboratory Diagnosis, Antimicrobial Resistance, and Antimicrobial Management of Invasive Salmonella Infections","volume":"28","author":"JA Crump","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0288015.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1086\/648615","article-title":"Binding of Salmonella \u2010Specific Antibody Facilitates Specific T Cell Responses via Augmentation of Bacterial Uptake and Induction of Apoptosis in Macrophages","volume":"201","author":"M Eguchi","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0288015.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-019-0227-4","article-title":"IgA and the intestinal microbiota: the importance of being specific.","volume":"13","author":"O Pabst","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol.Jan"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0288015.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00088","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00088-18","article-title":"Persistent Infection and Long-Term Carriage of Typhoidal and Nontyphoidal Salmonellae","volume":"32","author":"O. Gal-Mor","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0288015.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-020-05134-z","article-title":"Factors associated with occurrence of salmonellosis among children living in Mukuru slum, an urban informal settlement in Kenya.","volume":"20","author":"C Mbae","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis.Dec"},{"key":"pone.0288015.ref024","first-page":"532","volume":"IC","author":"KNBS","year":"2010","journal-title":"Kenya National Bureau of Statistics: The 2009 Kenya Population and Housing Census.Aug"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0288015.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.4103\/2229-3485.71856","article-title":"Sample size estimation in clinical trial","volume":"1","author":"TV Sakpal","year":"2010","journal-title":"Perspect Clin Res"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0288015.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1448","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1609.100125","article-title":"Typhoid Fever and Invasive Nontyphoid Salmonellosis, Malawi and South Africa","volume":"16","author":"NA Feasey","year":"2010","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"pone.0288015.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1501","DOI":"10.12688\/gatesopenres.13034.1","article-title":"Cross-sectional study of IgG antibody levels to invasive nontyphoidal Salmonella LPS O-antigen with age in Uganda.","volume":"3","author":"L Stockdale","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gates Open Res."},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0288015.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1007\/s12199-015-0468-0","article-title":"Understanding the contribution of environmental factors in the spread of antimicrobial resistance","volume":"20","author":"S. Fletcher","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ Health Prev Med.Jul"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0288015.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1186\/s12199-021-01023-2","article-title":"The role of Environmental Health in preventing antimicrobial resistance in low- and middle-income countries.","volume":"26","author":"D Musoke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ Health Prev Med."}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0288015","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,24]],"date-time":"2024-10-24T09:08:46Z","timestamp":1729760926000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0288015"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Ray","family":"Borrow","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0288015","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]]}}}