{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T16:46:44Z","timestamp":1792082804115,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,14]],"date-time":"2023-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1699920000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005864","name":"National Commission for Science, Technology, and Innovation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["NACOSTI\/RCD\/ST&I 6th CALL PhD\/194"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NACOSTI\/RCD\/ST&I 6th CALL PhD\/194"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005864","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100011094","name":"Public Health Agency of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100011094","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\"><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>The rapid spread of HBV has resulted in the emergence of new variants. These viral genotypes and variants, in addition to carcinogenic risk, can be key predictors of therapy response and outcomes. As a result, a better knowledge of these emerging HBV traits will aid in the development of a treatment for HBV infection. However, many Sub-Saharan African nations, including Kenya, have insufficient molecular data on HBV strains circulating locally. This study conducted a population-genetics analysis to evaluate the genetic diversity of HBV among Kenyan blood donors. In addition, within the same cohort, the incidence and features of immune-associated escape mutations and stop-codons in Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) were determined.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"sec002\"><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>In September 2015 to October 2016, 194 serum samples were obtained from HBsAg-positive blood donors residing in eleven different Kenyan counties: Kisumu, Machakos, Uasin Gishu, Nairobi, Nakuru, Embu, Garissa, Kisii, Mombasa, Nyeri, and Turkana. For the HBV surface (S) gene, HBV DNA was isolated, amplified, and sequenced. The sequences obtained were utilized to investigate the genetic and haplotype diversity within the S genes.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"sec003\"><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Among the blood donors, 74.74% were male, and the overall mean age was 25.36 years. HBV genotype A1 (88.14%) was the most common, followed by genotype D (10.82%), genotype C (0.52%), and HBV genotype E (0.52%). The phylogenetic analysis revealed twelve major clades, with cluster III comprising solely of 68 blood donor isolates (68\/194-35.05%). A high haplotype diversity (Hd = 0.94) and low nucleotide diversity (\u03c0 = 0.02) were observed. Kisumu county had high number of haplotypes (22), but low haplotype (gene) diversity (Hd = 0.90). Generally, a total of 90 haplotypes with some consisting of more than one sequence were observed. The gene exhibited negative values for Tajima\u2019s D (-2.04, p&lt;0.05) and Fu\u2019s Fs (-88.84). Several mutations were found in 139 isolates, either within or outside the Major Hydrophilic Area (MHR). There were 29 mutations found, with 37.9% of them situated inside the \"a\" determinant. The most common mutations in this research were T143M and K122R. Escape mutations linked to diagnostic failure, vaccination and immunoglobulin treatment evasion were also discovered. Also, one stop-codon, W163STP, inside the MHR, was found in one sample from genotype A.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"sec004\"><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>In Kenya, HBV\/A1 is still the most common genotype. Despite limited genetic and nucleotide diversity, haplotype network analysis revealed haplotype variance among HBV genotypes from Kenyan blood donors. The virological properties of immune escape, which may be the source of viral replication endurance, were discovered in the viral strains studied and included immune-escape mutations and stop-codon. The discovery of HBsAg mutations in MHR in all isolates highlighted the need of monitoring MHR mutations in Kenya.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0291378","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,14]],"date-time":"2023-11-14T18:30:16Z","timestamp":1699986616000},"page":"e0291378","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Genetic diversity, haplotype analysis, and prevalence of Hepatitis B virus MHR mutations among isolates from Kenyan blood donors"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7813-8486","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Benard Kibet","family":"Langat","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kevin Omondi","family":"Ochwedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jamie","family":"Borlang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5429-7220","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Carla","family":"Osiowy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alex","family":"Mutai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fredrick","family":"Okoth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edward","family":"Muge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anton","family":"Andonov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elijah Songok","family":"Maritim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0291378.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2035","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000001574","article-title":"HIV-hepatitis B virus coinfection: epidemiology, pathogenesis, and treatment","volume":"31","author":"KP Singh","year":"2017","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"pone.0291378.ref002","author":"World Health Organization.","year":"2019","journal-title":"Global Burden of Disease classification system."},{"key":"pone.0291378.ref003","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hepatitis B"},{"key":"pone.0291378.ref004","first-page":"479","article-title":"Molecular biology of hepatitis B virus infection","author":"C Seeger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"pone.0291378.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a021436","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a021436","article-title":"Hepatitis B Virus Genotypes and Variants.","volume":"5","author":"C-L Lin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med."},{"key":"pone.0291378.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.001415","article-title":"ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Hepadnaviridae","volume":"101","author":"L Magnius","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Gen Virol"},{"key":"pone.0291378.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1159\/000360947","article-title":"Genotypes and genetic variability of hepatitis B virus","volume":"57","author":"A. 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