{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T20:52:00Z","timestamp":1793393520924,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,7]],"date-time":"2024-02-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1707264000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Research indicates that the burden of violent death in the United States is disproportionate across racial and ethnic groups. Yet documented disparities in rates of violent death do not capture the full extent of this inequity. Recent studies examining race-specific rates of potential years of life lost\u2014a summary measure of premature mortality\u2014indicate that persons of color may die at younger ages than their counterparts, leading to increased trauma among surviving family members, friends, and communities. This study examines racial and ethnic disparities in potential years of life lost among people who died by homicide and suicide. We calculated potential years of life lost using life expectancy values specific to each racial and ethnic group, thereby isolating racial differences in potential years of life lost due to violence. Findings indicated that persons of color were disproportionately impacted by violence. Non-Hispanic African American homicide victims, suicide decedents, and homicide-suicide perpetrators died eleven or more years earlier than their non-Hispanic White counterparts. Similar disparities were observed for non-Hispanic Asian or Pacific Islander decedents. Less pronounced differences were observed for Hispanic and non-Hispanic American Indian or Alaska Native decedents. These racial and ethnic disparities were partly accounted for by a broad array of individual differences, incident characteristics, and contextual factors. The results suggest that homicide and suicide exact a high societal cost, and the burden of that cost is disproportionately high among persons of color.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0297346","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,7]],"date-time":"2024-02-07T18:23:36Z","timestamp":1707330216000},"page":"e0297346","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Disproportionate burden of violence: Explaining racial and ethnic disparities in potential years of life lost among homicide victims, suicide decedents, and homicide-suicide perpetrators"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0686-3301","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Gregory M.","family":"Zimmerman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emma E.","family":"Fridel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Trovato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0297346.ref001","article-title":"National Center for Injury Prevention and Control.","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","year":"2022","journal-title":"Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS) [online]."},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref002","unstructured":"Violence Policy Center. American roulette: Murder-suicide in the United States, 7th edition Washington, DC; 2020."},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1521\/suli.2007.37.5.543","article-title":"Emotional antecedents and consequences of deliberate self-harm and suicide attempts.","volume":"37","author":"A Chapman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Suicide & Life Threatening Behavior."},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref004","article-title":"The economic benefits of reducing violent crime: A case study of 8","author":"RJ Shapiro","year":"2012","journal-title":"American cities: Center for American Progress"},{"issue":"48","key":"pone.0297346.ref005","article-title":"Economic Cost of Injury\u2014United States, 2019.","volume":"70","author":"Cora Peterson GFMSBLBCF","year":"2021","journal-title":"Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref006","article-title":"Divergent social worlds: Neighborhood crime and the racial-spatial divide.:","author":"RD Peterson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Russell Sage Foundation"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1097\/00001648-199007000-00012","article-title":"Years of potential years of life lost (YPLL)-what does it measure?","volume":"1","author":"JW Gardner","year":"1990","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0185957","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0185957","article-title":"Do black lives matter in public health research and training?","volume":"12","author":"M Rosenberg","year":"2017","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0246477","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0246477","article-title":"Disparities in potential years of life lost due to intimate partner violence: Data from 16 states for 2006\u20132015.","volume":"16","author":"LM Graham","journal-title":"PLoS One. 2021"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7206a4","article-title":"Notes from the field: Recent changes in suicide rates, by race and ethnicity and age group","volume":"72","author":"DM Stone","year":"2023","journal-title":"Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7108a5","article-title":"Changes in suicide rates-United States, 2019 and 2020","volume":"71","author":"DC Ehlman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2012.11.006","article-title":"Explaining Black-White differences in homicide victimization.","volume":"18","author":"CC Lo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Aggression and Violent Behavior"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260514532720","article-title":"Racial disparities in age at time of homicide victimization: A test of the multiple disadvantage model","volume":"30","author":"CC Lo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Interpersonal Violence"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.9783\/9781512808728","volume-title":"Patterns in criminal homicide","author":"ME Wolfgang","year":"1958"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1162\/003465300558957","article-title":"The emergence of crack cocaine and the rise in urban crime rates","volume":"82","author":"J Grogger","year":"2000","journal-title":"Review of Economics and Statistics"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref016","author":"KD Kochanck","year":"2011","journal-title":"Deaths: Preliminary data for 2009: National Vital Statistics Reports"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref017","first-page":"67","article-title":"Homicide-United States, 1999\u20132007.","author":"JE Logan","year":"2011","journal-title":"In Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref018","article-title":"Crime in the United States annual reports.","author":"ederal Bureau of Investigation","year":"2023","journal-title":"Uniform Crime Reporting Program, Crime Data Explorer, accessed"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1097\/00000433-199712000-00012","article-title":"Murder-suicide of the jealous paranoia type: A multicenter statistical pilot study","volume":"18","author":"GB Palermo","year":"1997","journal-title":"The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.1997.tb01224.x","article-title":"Homicide followed by suicide: An analysis of Chicago data","author":"S. Stack","year":"1997","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwn213","article-title":"Characteristics of perpetrators in homicide-followed-by-suicide incidents: National Violent Death Reporting System-17 U.S. states, 2003\u20132005.","volume":"168","author":"J Logan","year":"2008","journal-title":"American Journal of Epidemiology"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2004.12.005","article-title":"Neighborhood structure differences between homicide victims and non-victims","volume":"33","author":"A Dobrin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of Criminal Justice"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssresearch.2012.04.006","article-title":"Another cost of being a young black male: Race, weaponry, and lethal outcomes in assaults","volume":"41","author":"RB Felson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Social Science Research"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0297346.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/154.4.291","article-title":"Commentary: Considerations for use of racial\/ethnic classification in etiological research","volume":"154","author":"JS Kaufman","year":"2001","journal-title":"American Journal of Epidemiology"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2004.037705","article-title":"Social anatomy of racial and ethnic disparities in violence","volume":"95","author":"RJ Sampson","year":"2005","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203828564","author":"JD Unnever","year":"2011","journal-title":"A theory of African American offending: Race, racism, and crime: Taylor & Francis"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1177\/2153368714531296","article-title":"A theory of African American offending: A test of core propositions.","volume":"4","author":"JD Unnever","year":"2014","journal-title":"Race and Justice."},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1186\/s13690-022-00969-1","article-title":"Disparities in years of potential life lost among racial and ethnic groups in Washington state.","volume":"80","author":"S Amiri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Archives of Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1428","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6939a6","article-title":"Deaths and years of potential life lost from excessive alcohol use-United States, 2011\u20132015.","volume":"69","author":"MB Esser","year":"2020","journal-title":"Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e51923","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0051923","article-title":"Mortality and potential years of life lost attributable to alcohol consumption by race and sex in the United States in 2005.","volume":"8","author":"KD Shield","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2022.108789","article-title":"Deaths associated with opioids, race and ethnicity, and years of potential life lost in Washington State.","volume":"139","author":"S Amiri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1497","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-016-0416-3","article-title":"Race, ethnicity, and adolescent violent victimization","volume":"45","author":"MS Tillyer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Youth and Adolescence"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1086\/229381","article-title":"Structural covariates of homicide rates: Are there any invariances across time and social space?","volume":"95","author":"KC Land","year":"1990","journal-title":"American Journal of Sociology"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref034","volume-title":"The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy","author":"J. Wilson","year":"1987"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1093\/hsw\/33.4.249","article-title":"Social work research on African Americans and suicidal behavior: A systematic 25-year review.","volume":"33","author":"S Joe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Health & Social Work."},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621569","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.621569","article-title":"The social roots of suicide: Theorizing how the external social world matters to suicide and suicide prevention.","volume":"12","author":"AS Mueller","year":"2021","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology."},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref037","article-title":"ode of the street: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city: W","author":"E. Anderson","year":"1999","journal-title":"CNorton"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref038","article-title":"Department of the Interior USGS.","author":"United States Board on Geographic Names","year":"2017","journal-title":"FIPS 55\u20133 Class Code Definitions.;"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref039","article-title":"Life expectancy at birth, at age 65, and at age 75, by sex, race, and Hispanic origin: United States, selected years 1900\u20132015.","author":"National Center for Health Statistics","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hyattsville, MD"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.15620\/cdc:113251","author":"E Arias","year":"2022","journal-title":"United States life tables, 2019: National Vital Statistics Report"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/6.2.143","article-title":"Potential years of life lost between ages 1 and 70: An indicator of premature mortality for health planning","volume":"6","author":"JM Romeder","year":"1977","journal-title":"International Journal of Epidemiology"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref042","first-page":"87","article-title":"Policy appropriate measurement of suicide: Headcount vs.","volume":"13","author":"DO Doessel","year":"2009","journal-title":"potential years of life lost, Australia, 1907\u20132005. Archives of Suicide Research"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2022.06.012","article-title":"Estimates of years of life lost depended on the method used: Tutorial and comparative investigation","volume":"150","author":"YV Chudasama","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Epidemiology"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref044","author":"PM Blau","year":"1977","journal-title":"Inequality and heterogeneity: A primitive theory of social structure New York: Free Press"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"918","DOI":"10.1126\/science.277.5328.918","article-title":"Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy.","volume":"277","author":"RJ Sampson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1515\/9781503615557-004","volume-title":"In Crime and inequality.","author":"RJ Sampson","year":"1995"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1177\/1088767911424542","article-title":"Reconsidering culture and homicide.","volume":"15","author":"MR Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Homicide Studies"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1525\/sp.2003.50.2.157","article-title":"Retaliatory homicide: Concentrated disadvantage and neighborhood culture.","volume":"50","author":"CE Kubrin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Social Problems"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2004.044560","article-title":"Pathways to recurrent trauma among young black men: Traumatic stress, substance use, and the \"code of the street\".","volume":"95","author":"JA Rich","year":"2005","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref050","author":"Office of the Surgeon General","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mental health: Culture, race, and ethnicity.;"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/s10464-008-9189-5","article-title":"Racial differences in beliefs about the effectiveness and necessity of mental health treatment","volume":"40","author":"DM Anglin","year":"2008","journal-title":"American Journal of Community Psychology"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1097\/JGP.0b013e3181cc0366","article-title":"Mental health treatment seeking among older adults with depression: The impact of stigma and race","volume":"18","author":"KO Conner","year":"2010","journal-title":"American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1097\/NNR.0b013e31827bf533","article-title":"African American men and women\u2019s attitude toward mental illness, perceptions of stigma, and preferred coping behaviors","volume":"62","author":"E Ward","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Research in Nursing"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0297346.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1097\/MLR.0000000000000335","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic differences in health care visits made before suicide attempt across the United States.","volume":"53","author":"BK Ahmedani","year":"2015","journal-title":"Medical Care"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0297346.ref055","first-page":"227","article-title":"Cultural factors influencing the mental health of Asian Americans","volume":"176","author":"EJ Kramer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Western Journal of Medicine"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0297346.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1177\/0743558406295969","article-title":"\u201cThey might think I was crazy\u201d: Young American Indians\u2019 reasons for not seeking help when suicidal.","volume":"22","author":"S. Freedenthal","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Adolescent Research"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref057","author":"Institute of Medicine","year":"2003","journal-title":"Unequal treatment: Understanding and eliminating racial and ethnic disparities in health care: N.A. Press"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1184","DOI":"10.1197\/S1069-6563(03)00487-1","article-title":"Racial and ethnic disparities in the clinical practice of emergency medicine.","volume":"10","author":"LD Richardson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Academy of Emergency Medicine"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref059","first-page":"1195","article-title":"Disparities in trauma care and outcomes in the United States: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"74","author":"AH Haider","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1097\/TA.0000000000003407","article-title":"Racial disparities in triage of adolescent patient after bullet injury","volume":"92","author":"EG Andrade","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpedsurg.2012.03.029","article-title":"Race disparities in firearm injuries and outcomes among Tennessee children","volume":"47","author":"CA Martin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatric Surgery"},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.201100159","article-title":"Suicide thoughts and attempts and psychiatric treatment utilization: Informing prevention strategies.","volume":"63","author":"BK Ahmedani","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychiatric Services"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0297346.ref063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1080\/07370016.2019.1665320","article-title":"Barriers to healthcare access facing American Indian and Alaska Natives in rural American","volume":"36","author":"KJ Cromer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Community Health Nursing"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0297346.ref064","first-page":"290","article-title":"Racial disparities in access to heath care and preventive services between Asian Americans\/Pacific Islanders and non-Hispanic Whites.","volume":"20","author":"X-J Wen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ethnicity & Disease."},{"key":"pone.0297346.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-022-01284-9","article-title":"Racial and ethnic disparities in mental health and mental healthcare during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"10","author":"MB Thomeer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0297346","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,7]],"date-time":"2024-02-07T18:24:14Z","timestamp":1707330254000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0297346"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Paolo","family":"Roma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,7]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,7]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0297346","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,7]]}}}