{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,25]],"date-time":"2026-10-25T17:37:14Z","timestamp":1792949834665,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":128,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]],"date-time":"2024-03-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711584000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>There has been an increase in female incarcerated offenders nationally and internationally. Despite this trend, literature and research on female offenders remain limited compared to their male counterparts. Evidence of the relationship between certain personality disorders and offending behaviour has led numerous countries to prioritise identifying and assessing personality disorders among the offender population. Psychopathic personality traits may contribute to women\u2019s risk factors for expressing antisocial behaviours, resulting in their potential future incarceration. Thus, a need exists to understand possible factors that may predict the expression of psychopathic traits in females, which may have notable utility among female offenders. This study aimed to investigate possible predictor variables of psychopathy amongst incarcerated female offenders in South Africa. A quantitative research approach, non-experimental research type, and correlational research design were employed. A convenience sampling technique was used. The sample consisted of 139 (<jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic> = 139) female offenders housed in two correctional centres in South Africa who voluntarily participated in this study. Correlation analyses and hierarchical regression analysis procedures were conducted to analyse the results. Results indicated (i) a certain combination of predictor variables that statistically and practically significantly explained both primary and secondary psychopathy and (ii) individual predictor variables (e.g., Impulsivity, Simple Tasks, Risk-Seeking, and Self-Centredness) that explained both primary and secondary psychopathy statistically and practically significantly. This study provides valuable information about the possible predictor variables of psychopathy amongst female offenders within the context of South Africa. However, further research must be conducted to validate these findings and advance our knowledge on this topic.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0299847","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]],"date-time":"2024-03-28T17:32:31Z","timestamp":1711647151000},"page":"e0299847","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Morality, self-control, age, type of offence and sentence length as predictors of psychopathy amongst female incarcerated offenders in South Africa"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Judite Danielle","family":"de Oliveira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3931-7091","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jacques","family":"Jordaan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2849-4853","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Matthew","family":"Cronj\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0299847.ref001","first-page":"1","article-title":"Intersectionality and crime: reflections from female ex-inmates in South Africa","volume":"31","author":"C Agboola","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Crim"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref002","author":"University of the Free State","year":"2022","journal-title":"Predictors of correctional adjustment amongst incarcerated female offenders in correctional centres"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref003","volume-title":"Women in prison: the Bangkok rules and beyond","author":"M Krabbe","year":"2017"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0299847.ref004","first-page":"33","article-title":"A profile of incarcerated female offenders: implications for rehabilitation policy and practice","volume":"30","author":"F Steyn","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Crim"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref005","unstructured":"South Africa. Department of Correctional Services. Annual report for the 2018\/2019 financial year. 2019a. Available from: http:\/\/www.dcs.gov.za\/?page_id=663"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref006","unstructured":"South Africa. Department of Correctional Services. Annual report for the 2021\/2022 financial year. 2022. Available from: http:\/\/www.dcs.gov.za\/?page_id=663"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref007","unstructured":"South Africa. Judicial Inspectorate for Correctional Services. Annual report for the 2020\/2021 financial year. 2021. Available from: http:\/\/jics.dcs.gov.za\/jics\/?page_id=142"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref008","unstructured":"Botha R. Psychopathy and comorbid mental disorders among South African female offenders. [Doctoral dissertation]. University of the Free State. 2014."},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fekih-Romdhane F, Hsini A, Aouina AA, Ridha R, Cheour M. Correlates of psychopathy in a Tunisian sample of incarcerated women. J Forensic Leg Med. 2021; 82(102232):1\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2021.102232"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.4321\/S1575-06202019000200002","article-title":"Personality disorders, addictions and psychopathy as predictors of criminal behaviour in a prison sample","volume":"21","author":"G Fl\u00f3rez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev Esp Sanid Penit"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref011","author":"University of the Free State","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antisocial personalities among maximum security prisoners"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref012","author":"University of the Free State","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychopathic traits and offender characteristics amongst female offenders in a South African correctional centre"},{"issue":"101849","key":"pone.0299847.ref013","first-page":"1","article-title":"Criminal lifestyle, psychopathy, and prison adjustment among female inmates","volume":"76","author":"M Pinheiro","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Crim Justice"},{"issue":"831410","key":"pone.0299847.ref014","first-page":"1","article-title":"Female psychopathy and mortality","volume":"13","author":"O Vaurio","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0299847.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"708","DOI":"10.1177\/0011128715573617","article-title":"The association between psychopathic personality traits and criminal justice outcomes: results from a nationally representative sample of males and females","volume":"63","author":"KM Beaver","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crime Delinq"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0299847.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191108319043","article-title":"Cross-validation of Levenson\u2019s Psychopathy Scale in a sample of federal female inmates","volume":"15","author":"CA Brinkley","year":"2008","journal-title":"Assessment"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0299847.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1177\/0959354392021003","article-title":"Rethinking psychopathy","volume":"2","author":"MR Levenson","year":"1992","journal-title":"Theory Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0299847.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.68.1.151","article-title":"Assessing psychopathic attributes in a noninstitutionalized population","volume":"68","author":"MR Levenson","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0299847.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1177\/1541204009333834","article-title":"Psychopathy is the unified theory of crime","volume":"7","author":"M. DeLisi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Youth Violence Juv Justice"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref020","volume-title":"Psychopathy as unified theory of crime","author":"Palgrave Macmillan","year":"2016"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref021","volume-title":"Routledge international handbook of psychopathy and crime","author":"M DeLisi","year":"2019"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0299847.ref022","first-page":"52","article-title":"Female economic offenders in South Africa","volume":"109","author":"W. Kruger","year":"2016","journal-title":"Servamus Community-Based Safety and Security Magazine"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref023","unstructured":"South Africa. South African Police Service. Annual report for the 2012\/2013 financial year. 2013. Available from: https:\/\/www.gov.za\/documents\/annual-report"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref024","unstructured":"South Africa. South African Police Service. Annual report for the 2009\/2010 financial year. 2010. Available from: https:\/\/www.gov.za\/documents\/annual-report"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1007\/s11205-006-9009-y","article-title":"Crime and perceptions after a decade of democracy","volume":"81","author":"A Louw","year":"2007","journal-title":"Soc Indic Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0299847.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/s11017-013-9275-z","article-title":"Intervening in the psychopath\u2019s brain","volume":"35","author":"W Glannon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Theor Med Bioeth"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref027","first-page":"50","article-title":"The last frontier: myths and the female psychopathic killer","volume":"19","author":"FS Perri","year":"2010","journal-title":"Forensic Exam"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1002\/bsl.925","article-title":"Corporate psychopathy: talking the walk","volume":"28","author":"P Babiak","year":"2010","journal-title":"Behav Sci Law"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119944980","volume-title":"Psychopathy and law: a practitioner\u2019s guide","author":"H H\u00e4kk\u00e4nen-Nyholm","year":"2012"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0299847.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1007\/s10979-007-9122-8","article-title":"Relation of antisocial and psychopathic traits to suicide-related behavior among offenders","volume":"32","author":"KS Douglas","journal-title":"Law Hum Behav. 2008"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0299847.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1037\/h0093928","article-title":"Psychopathy and crime: testing the incremental validity of PCL-R measured psychopathy as a predictor of general and violent recidivism","volume":"36","author":"GD Walters","year":"2012","journal-title":"Law Hum Behav"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0299847.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1177\/0022427895032004001","article-title":"An alternative strategy focusing on motivational processes","volume":"32","author":"R. Agnew","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Res Crime Delinq"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0299847.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11896-017-9245-x","article-title":"Serial homicide perpetrators\u2019 self-reported psychopathy and criminal thinking","volume":"34","author":"SE xCulhane","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Police Crim Psychol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0299847.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000418","article-title":"Psychopathy and substance use in relation to prostitution and pimping among women offenders","volume":"12","author":"BG Edwards","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pers Disord: Theory Res Treat"},{"issue":"17\u201318","key":"pone.0299847.ref035","first-page":"1","article-title":"The triarchic model of psychopathy and antisocial behavior: results from an offender population with personality disorder","volume":"36","author":"NS Gray","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Interpers Violence"},{"issue":"1110","key":"pone.0299847.ref036","first-page":"1","article-title":"Validation of the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale in Bulgarian substance-dependent individuals","volume":"11","author":"E Psederska","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0299847.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1177\/1541204009333797","article-title":"Psychopathy in adolescence predicts official reports of offending in adulthood","volume":"7","author":"DR Lynam","year":"2009","journal-title":"Youth Violence Juv Justice"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511975196","volume-title":"Memory detection: theory and application of the concealed information test","author":"B Verschuere","year":"2011"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0299847.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1080\/10508422.2015.1028548","article-title":"The Moral Metacognition Scale: development and validation","volume":"26","author":"JM McMahon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ethics Behav"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691610362351","article-title":"Moral complexity: the fatal attraction of truthiness and the importance of mature moral functioning","volume":"5","author":"D. Narvaez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Perspect Psychol Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0299847.ref041","first-page":"663","article-title":"Moral maturation and moral conation: a capacity approach to explaining moral thought and action","volume":"36","author":"ST Hannah","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acad Manage Rev"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.5840\/beq201222223","article-title":"Before virtue: biology, brain, behavior, and the \u201cmoral sense","volume":"22","author":"E. Sadler-Smith","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bus Ethics Q"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref043","volume-title":"History, philosophy and theory of the life sciences: psychopathy its uses, validity and status","author":"L Malatesti","year":"2022"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0268-1064.2005.00284.x","article-title":"Moral unreason: the case of psychopathy","volume":"20","author":"HL Maibom","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mind Lang"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0299847.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1037\/a0020979","article-title":"Aberrant neural processing of moral violations in criminal psychopaths","volume":"119","author":"CL Harenski","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Abnorm Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0299847.ref046","first-page":"1","article-title":"Do psychopathic individuals possess a misaligned moral compass? A meta-analytic examination of psychopathy\u2019s relations with moral judgment","volume":"9","author":"J Marshall","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pers Disord: Theory Res Treat"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0299847.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2013.07.008","article-title":"Emotion processing in psychopathy checklist-assessed psychopathy: a review of the literature","volume":"33","author":"M Brook","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Rev"},{"issue":"741","key":"pone.0299847.ref048","first-page":"1","article-title":"Neural correlates of moral and non-moral emotion in female psychopathy","volume":"8","author":"CL Harenski","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front Hum Neurosci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0299847.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.2307\/3097145","article-title":"Self-control and criminal opportunity: a prospective test of the general theory of crime","volume":"45","author":"D Longshore","year":"1998","journal-title":"Soc Probl"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2014.04.055","article-title":"Does low self-control explain voluntary disclosure of personal information on the internet?","volume":"37","author":"S. Yu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput Human Behav"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1515\/9781503621794","volume-title":"A general theory of crime","author":"MR Gottfredson","year":"1990"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0299847.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10940-012-9192-8","article-title":"Rational misbehavior? Evaluating an integrated dual-process model of criminal decision making","volume":"30","author":"JL Van Gelder","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Quant Criminol"},{"issue":"101725","key":"pone.0299847.ref053","first-page":"1","article-title":"Assessing potential overlap between self-control and psychopathy: a consideration of the Grasmick Self-Control Scale and the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale","volume":"70","author":"TA Armstrong","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Crim Justice"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0299847.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psc.2008.03.004","article-title":"The neurobiology of psychopathy","volume":"31","author":"AL Glenn","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychiatr Clin North Am"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0299847.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1097\/YCO.0b013e32832bfa6d","article-title":"Cortisol, callous-unemotional traits, and pathways to antisocial behavior","volume":"22","author":"DJ Hawes","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr Opin Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref056","first-page":"212","volume-title":"Impulsivity: theory, assessment and treatment","author":"Impulsivity and psychopathy","year":"1997"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/s10862-013-9388-8","article-title":"Higher levels of psychopathy predict poorer motor control: implications for understanding the psychopathy construct","volume":"36","author":"MD Robinson","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Psychopathol Behav Assess"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0299847.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2013.11.001","article-title":"Foundation for a temperament-based theory of antisocial behavior and criminal justice system involvement","volume":"42","author":"M DeLisi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Crim Justice"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0299847.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.2012.00276.x","article-title":"Traits and states: integrating personality and affect into a model of criminal decision making","volume":"50","author":"JL Van Gelder","year":"2012","journal-title":"Criminol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1521\/pedi.2010.24.2.244","article-title":"The HEXACO and 5DPT models of personality: a comparison and their relationships with psychopathy, egoism, pretentiousness, immorality, and Machiavellianism","volume":"24","author":"RE De Vries","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Pers Disord"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0299847.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1002\/per.733","article-title":"More than the big five: egoism and the HEXACO model of personality","volume":"23","author":"RE De Vries","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur J Pers"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref062","first-page":"119","article-title":"Family and socio-demographic risk factors for psychopathy among prison inmates","volume":"4","author":"CH Garc\u00eda","year":"2012","journal-title":"The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1002\/bsl.923","article-title":"Behavioral genetics in antisocial spectrum disorders and psychopathy: a review of the recent literature","volume":"28","author":"TD Gunter","year":"2010","journal-title":"Behav Sci Law"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2009.10.016","article-title":"The dark side of love and life satisfaction: associations with intimate relationships, psychopathy and Machiavellianism","volume":"48","author":"F Ali","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pers Individ Differ"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0299847.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1111\/jopy.12545","article-title":"Age differences in Machiavellianism across the life span: evidence from a large\u2010scale cross\u2010sectional study","volume":"88","author":"FM G\u00f6tz","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Pers"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0299847.ref066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/0890207020988435","article-title":"Age and gender differences in socially aversive (\u201cdark\u201d) personality traits","volume":"36","author":"J Hartung","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur J Pers"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2016.06.043","article-title":"The dark side of Facebook: the dark tetrad, negative social potency, and trolling behaviours","volume":"102","author":"N Craker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pers Individ Differ"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0299847.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.132.1.1","article-title":"Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies","volume":"132","author":"BW Roberts","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref069","first-page":"242","volume-title":"Handbook of research on adult learning and development","author":"Adjustment and growth: two trajectories of positive personality development across adulthood","year":"2009"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0299847.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1012710424821","article-title":"Investigation of the criminal and conditional release profiles of Canadian federal offenders as a function of psychopathy and age","volume":"25","author":"S Porter","year":"2001","journal-title":"Law Hum Behav"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0299847.ref071","first-page":"781","article-title":"Validating female psychopathy subtypes: differences in personality, antisocial and violent behavior, substance abuse, trauma, and mental health","volume":"1","author":"BM Hicks","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pers Disord: Theory Res Treat"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref072","author":"Iowa State University","year":"2007","journal-title":"An exploratory look at career criminality, psychopathy, and offending persistence: convergence of criminological and psychological constructs?"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0299847.ref073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1037\/a0027061","article-title":"Childhood risk, offending trajectories and psychopathy at age 48 in the Cambridge study in delinquent development","volume":"18","author":"AR Piquero","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol Public Policy Law"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0299847.ref074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1007\/s10979-006-9003-6","article-title":"Treatment of gang members can reduce recidivism and institutional misconduct","volume":"30","author":"C Di Placido","year":"2006","journal-title":"Law Hum Behav"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref075","author":"University of Saskatchewan","year":"2006","journal-title":"The criminal career profile: A measure of criminal careers"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref076","unstructured":"Rogers C. Predictors of prison adjustment amongst male incarcerated offenders in a private maximum-security correctional centre. [Master\u2019s thesis]. University of the Free State. 2019."},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref077","volume-title":"Understanding and applying research design","author":"ML Abbott","year":"2013"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref078","volume-title":"Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches","author":"JW Creswell","year":"2018","edition":"5"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref079","volume-title":"Research methods for the behavioural sciences","author":"C. Stangor","year":"2015","edition":"5"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref080","unstructured":"Maree K, editor. First steps in research. 3rd ed. Pretoria (South Africa): Van Schaik; 2019."},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref081","unstructured":"EvaSys. The software for paper-based and online surveys. 2021. Available from: https:\/\/evasys.de\/en\/evasys\/"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref082","author":"F Barbosa","year":"2014","journal-title":"The Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRPS): translation and adaptation to European Portuguese"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0299847.ref083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1080\/00223891.2018.1519830","article-title":"Factor structure and construct validity of the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP): a replication and extension in Dutch nonclinical participants","volume":"101","author":"C Garofalo","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Pers Assess"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0299847.ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1016\/S0191-8869(00)00178-1","article-title":"Construct validation of a self-report psychopathy scale: does Levenson\u2019s Self-Report Psychopathy Scale measure the same constructs as Hare\u2019s Psychopathy Checklist-Revised?","volume":"31","author":"CA Brinkley","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pers Individ Dif"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref085","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191105284992","article-title":"The self-report psychopathy scale and passive avoidance learning: a validation study of race and gender effects","volume":"13","author":"MK Epstein","year":"2006","journal-title":"Assessment"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0299847.ref086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000073","article-title":"Examining the factor structure and convergent and discriminant validity of the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale: is the two-factor model the best fitting model?","volume":"5","author":"RT Salekin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pers Disord: Theory Res Treat"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0299847.ref087","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1007\/s10979-010-9249-x","article-title":"Elaborating on the construct validity of the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale in incarcerated and non-incarcerated samples","volume":"35","author":"M. Sellbom","year":"2011","journal-title":"Law Hum Behav"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0299847.ref088","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191116637421","article-title":"Evaluating the construct validity of the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale in China","volume":"24","author":"Y Shou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Assessment"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0299847.ref089","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.1037\/pas0000537","article-title":"Factor structure and construct validity of the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP) in a sample of Chinese male inmates","volume":"30","author":"MC Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychol Assess"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref090","author":"K. Borchert","year":"2022","journal-title":"User manual: inquisit Levenson\u2019s Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP)"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0299847.ref091","first-page":"153","article-title":"Turkish Moral Metacognition Scale (TMMS): the study of adaptation, validation and reliability","volume":"12","author":"U Duruk","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int Online J Educ Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref092","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2007.01.007","article-title":"Investigating the theoretical construct and invariance of the self-control scale using confirmatory factor analysis","volume":"35","author":"MWM Williams","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Crim Justice"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref093","volume-title":"The generality of deviance","author":"T Hirschi","year":"1994"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref094","unstructured":"IBM Corporation. IBM SPSS statistics for Windows (28.0). 2022. Available from: https:\/\/www.ibm.com\/products\/spss-statistics"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref095","unstructured":"Aron A, Aron EN, Coups EJ. Statistics for psychology. 6th ed. New Jersey (United States): Prentice Hall; 2014."},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0299847.ref096","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/job.1960","article-title":"Cronbach\u2019s alpha reliability: interval estimation, hypothesis testing, and sample size planning","volume":"36","author":"DG Bonett","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Organ Behav"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref097","unstructured":"Ayamba BN, Arhin AK, Dankwa JA. Counselling needs of Ghanaian prisoners: the case of Ankaful and Kumasi central prisons. Ife Psychol. 2017; 25(2):195\u2013205."},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref098","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vogt WP, editor. Dictionary of statistics and methodology. 3rd ed. California (United States): Sage; 2005.","DOI":"10.4135\/9781412983907"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref099","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kahane LH. Regression basics. 2nd ed. California (United States): Sage; 2008.","DOI":"10.4135\/9781483385662"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref100","author":"HS Steyn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Manual for the determination of effect size indices and practical significance"},{"issue":"100141","key":"pone.0299847.ref101","first-page":"1","article-title":"Overlapping measures or constructs? An empirical study of the overlap between self-control, psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism","volume":"3","author":"M DeLisi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int Synerg"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0299847.ref102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2010.05.031","article-title":"I just cannot control myself: the dark triad and self-control","volume":"49","author":"PK Jonason","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pers Individ Differ"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2015.02.013","article-title":"Examining relationships between facial emotion recognition, self-control, and psychopathic traits in a non-clinical sample","volume":"80","author":"CE Prado","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pers Individ Differ"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0299847.ref104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2011.02.003","article-title":"Impulsivity and psychopathy: associations between the Barrett Impulsivity Scale and the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised","volume":"187","author":"RJ Snowden","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0299847.ref105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2010.04.012","article-title":"Economic decision-making in psychopathy: a comparison with ventromedial prefrontal lesion patients","volume":"48","author":"M Koenigs","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1111\/bjop.12205","article-title":"It\u2019s immoral, but I\u2019d do it! Psychopathy traits affect decision-making in sacrificial dilemmas and in everyday moral situations","volume":"108","author":"C Pletti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br J Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dean AC, Altstein LL, Berman ME, Constans JI, Sugar CA, McCloskey MS. Secondary psychopathy, but not primary psychopathy, is associated with risky decision-making in noninstitutionalized young adults. Pers Individ Differ. 2013; 54(2):272\u2013277. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.paid.2012.09.009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2012.09.009"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kowalski CM, Vernon PA, Schermer JA. Vocational interests and dark personality: are there dark career choices? Pers Individ Differ. 2017; 104:43\u201347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.paid.2016.07.029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2016.07.029"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thomson ND, Vassileva J, Kiehl KA, Reidy D, Aboutanos M, McDougle R, et al. Which features of psychopathy and impulsivity matter most for prison violence? New evidence among female prisoners. Int J Law Psychiatry. 2019; 64:26\u201333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijlp.2019.01.001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijlp.2019.01.001"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dr.2006.02.002","article-title":"Consilience and life history theory: from genes to brain to reproductive strategy","volume":"26","author":"A Figueredo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Dev Rev"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jackson DB, Testa A, Vaughn MG. Low self-control and the adolescent police stop: intrusiveness, emotional response, and psychological well-being. J Crim Justice. 2020; 66(101635). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2019.101635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2019.101635"},{"issue":"101630","key":"pone.0299847.ref112","article-title":"The early temperamental correlates of antisocial propensity","volume":"66","author":"JR Mathesius","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Crim Justice"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petrich DM, Sullivan CJ. Does future orientation moderate the relationship between impulse control and offending? Insights from a sample of serious young offenders. Youth Violence Juv Justice. 2020; 18(2):156\u2013178. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1541204019876976","DOI":"10.1177\/1541204019876976"},{"issue":"101687","key":"pone.0299847.ref114","article-title":"Parenting practices, self-control and anti-social behaviors: meta-analytic structural equation modeling","volume":"68","author":"HD Tehrani","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Crim Justice"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wojciechowski T. The relevance of the dual systems model of self-control for age-related deceleration in offending variety among juvenile offenders. J Crim Justice. 2020; 70(101716). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2020.101716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2020.101716"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ray JV, Thornton LC, Frick PJ, Steinberg L, Cauffman E. Impulse control and callous-unemotional traits distinguish patterns of delinquency and substance use in justice involved adolescents: examining the moderating role of neighborhood context. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2016; 44(3):599\u2013611. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10802-015-0057-0","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-015-0057-0"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0299847.ref117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000303","article-title":"Trajectories of alcohol and marijuana use among primary versus secondary psychopathy variants within an adjudicated adolescent male sample","volume":"10","author":"R Waller","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pers Disord: Theory Res Treat"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0299847.ref118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1080\/14999013.2010.517258","article-title":"Structure and correlates of the Barratt impulsiveness scale (BIS-11) in offenders: implications for psychopathy and externalizing pathology","volume":"9","author":"MA Ruiz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int J Forensic Ment Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0299847.ref119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1080\/13803390490510103","article-title":"The relationship of behavioral inhibition to executive functions in young adults","volume":"26","author":"AM Cheung","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Clin Exp Neuropsychol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0299847.ref120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1080\/00207450590524304","article-title":"Self-rated executive function: development of the executive function index","volume":"115","author":"M. Spinella","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int J Neurosci"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0299847.ref121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2009.04.008","article-title":"Fifty years of the Barratt impulsiveness scale: an update and review","volume":"47","author":"MS Stanford","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pers Individ Differ"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0299847.ref122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijlp.2007.09.010","article-title":"The link between dyslexic traits, executive functioning, impulsivity and social self-esteem among an offender and non-offender sample","volume":"30","author":"SF Baker","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int J Law Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref123","author":"South Africa","journal-title":"Department of Correctional Services. Department of Correctional Services research agenda"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref124","first-page":"17","article-title":"Philosophies of incarceration and the incarceration of philosophy","author":"S. Tyson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Paper presented at the 22nd Annual Philosophy Conference"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref125","first-page":"96","article-title":"Predictors of aggressive criminality among sentenced women and men with psychopathic characteristics","volume":"102","author":"M Banasik","year":"2015","journal-title":"Problems of Forensic Sciences"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0299847.ref126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1177\/0081246317715351","article-title":"Psychopathy and its relation to personality psychopathology in a South African female forensic context","volume":"48","author":"R Botha","year":"2018","journal-title":"S Afr J Psychol"},{"issue":"101455","key":"pone.0299847.ref127","first-page":"1","article-title":"Female psychopathy: a descriptive national study of socially dangerous female NGRI offenders","volume":"68","author":"F Carabellese","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Law Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0299847.ref128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2017.03.002","article-title":"Comparison of murderers with recidivists and first time incarcerated offenders from US prisons on psychopathy and identity as a criminal: an exploratory analysis","volume":"51","author":"N Sherretts","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Crim Justice"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0299847","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]],"date-time":"2024-03-28T17:34:01Z","timestamp":1711647241000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0299847"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Vincenzo","family":"De Luca","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]]},"references-count":128,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0299847","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,28]]}}}