{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T01:23:00Z","timestamp":1783387380541,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,28]],"date-time":"2024-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724803200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Thailand Science Research and Innovation (TSRI), Chulabhorn Research Institute","award":["Grant number 48293\/4691984"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Grant number 48293\/4691984"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    <jats:italic>Stenotrophomonas maltophilia<\/jats:italic>\n                    , a ubiquitous environmental bacterium, is an important cause of nosocomial infections. Although banned in some countries, paraquat (PQ) is commonly used to control weeds. In this study, we investigated the effects of increasing concentrations of PQ on\n                    <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>\n                    .\n                    <jats:italic>maltophilia<\/jats:italic>\n                    and its antimicrobial resistance. The sequential exposure of\n                    <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>\n                    .\n                    <jats:italic>maltophilia<\/jats:italic>\n                    K279a to increasing concentrations of PQ induces the formation of strains with increased resistance to PQ. Among the 400 PQ-resistant isolates tested, 70 clones were resistant to 16 \u03bcg\/ml ciprofloxacin (CIP), and around 18% of the PQ\/CIP-resistant isolates showed increased resistance to all the tested antimicrobials including, the aminoglycosides, quinolones, cephalosporin, chloramphenicol, and co-trimoxazole. The results of the expression analysis of the antimicrobial resistance genes in the five selected PQ\/CIP-resistant isolates demonstrated the high expression of genes encoding efflux pumps (\n                    <jats:italic>smeYZ<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>smaAB<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>smaCDEF<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>smeDEF<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>smeVWX<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and\n                    <jats:italic>smtcrA<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) and the enzymes\n                    <jats:italic>aph(3\u2019)-IIc<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>blaL1<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and\n                    <jats:italic>blaL2<\/jats:italic>\n                    . However, expression of the genes known for PQ resistance (i.e.,\n                    <jats:italic>mfsA<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>sod<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) were not altered relative to the wild-type levels. Whole genome sequence analysis identified gene mutations that could account for the antimicrobial resistance, namely,\n                    <jats:italic>smeT<\/jats:italic>\n                    (TetR family regulatory protein),\n                    <jats:italic>rplA<\/jats:italic>\n                    (ribosomal protein L1), and\n                    <jats:italic>acnA<\/jats:italic>\n                    (aconitase A). Ectopic expression of wild-type AcnA partially complemented the fluoroquinolone-resistant phenotype of the mutant with mutated\n                    <jats:italic>acnA<\/jats:italic>\n                    , which suggests the role of aconitase A in antimicrobial susceptibility. Exposure of\n                    <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>\n                    .\n                    <jats:italic>maltophilia<\/jats:italic>\n                    to PQ thus induces the development of strains that increase resistance to multiple antimicrobials.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0309525","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,28]],"date-time":"2024-08-28T14:17:19Z","timestamp":1724854639000},"page":"e0309525","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Acquired resistance of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia to antimicrobials induced by herbicide paraquat dichloride"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Veerakit","family":"Vanitshavit","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nisanart","family":"Charoenlap","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ratiboot","family":"Sallabhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wirongrong","family":"Whangsuk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4034-3468","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Kisana","family":"Bhinija","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Punyawee","family":"Dulyayangkul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Skorn","family":"Mongkolsuk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8744-4963","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Paiboon","family":"Vattanaviboon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,28]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0309525.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00030-19","article-title":"Advances in the Microbiology of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia","volume":"34","author":"JS Brooke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0309525.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/gb-2008-9-4-r74","article-title":"The complete genome, comparative and functional analysis of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia reveals an organism heavily shielded by drug resistance determinants","volume":"9","author":"LC Crossman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Genome Biol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0309525.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1080\/14787210.2020.1730178","article-title":"Mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in Stenotrophomonas maltophilia: a review of current knowledge","volume":"18","author":"T Gil-Gil","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther"},{"key":"pone.0309525.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.00658","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance in the opportunistic pathogen Stenotrophomonas maltophilia","volume":"6","author":"MB Sanchez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front Microbiol"},{"key":"pone.0309525.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stuart AM, Merfield CN, Horgan FG, Willis S, Watts MA, Ramirez-Munoz F, et al. 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