{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T00:24:46Z","timestamp":1793406286539,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,28]],"date-time":"2024-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1730073600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001321","name":"National Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["138276"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["138276"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001321","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Globally, the significant risk to food safety and public health posed by antimicrobial-resistant foodborne <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic> pathogens is driven by the utilization of in-feed antibiotics, with variations in usage across poultry production systems. The current study investigated the occurrence of virulence, antimicrobial resistant profiles, and biofilm-forming potentials of <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic> isolates sourced from different chicken types. A total of 75 cloacal faecal samples were collected using sterile swabs from layer, broiler, and indigenous chickens across 15 poultry farms (five farms per chicken type). The samples were analysed for the presence of <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic> spp. using species-specific PCR analysis. Out of the 150 presumptive isolates, a large proportion (82; 55%) were confirmed as <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic> species, comprising the serovars <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>. typhimurium (49%) and <jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic>. enteritidis (30%) while 21% were uncategorised. Based on phenotypic antibiotic susceptibility test, the <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic> isolates were most often resistant to erythromycin (62%), tetracycline (59%), and trimethoprim (32%). The dominant multiple antibiotic resistance phenotypes were SXT-W-TE (16%), E-W-TE (10%), AML-E-TE (10%), E-SXT-W-TE (13%), and AMP-AML-E-SXT-W-TE (10%). Genotypic assessment of antibiotic resistance genes revealed that isolates harboured the <jats:italic>ant<\/jats:italic> (52%), <jats:italic>tet<\/jats:italic> (A) (46%), <jats:italic>sui1<\/jats:italic> (13%), <jats:italic>sui2<\/jats:italic> (14%), and <jats:italic>tet<\/jats:italic> (B) (9%) determinants. Major virulence genes comprising the invasion gene <jats:italic>spiC<\/jats:italic>, the SPI-3 encoded protein (<jats:italic>misL<\/jats:italic>) that is associated with the establishment of chronic infections and host specificity as well as the SPI-4 encoded <jats:italic>orfL<\/jats:italic> that facilitates adhesion, autotransportation and colonisation were detected in 26%, 16%, and 14% of the isolates respectively. There was no significant difference on the proportion of <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic> species and the occurrence of virulence and antimicrobial resistance determinants among <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic> isolates obtained from different chicken types. In addition, neither the chicken type nor incubation temperature influenced the potential of the <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic> isolates to form biofilms, although a large proportion (62%) exhibited weak to strong biofilm-forming potentials. Moderate to high proportions of antimicrobial resistant pathogenic <jats:italic>Salmonella<\/jats:italic> serovars were detected in the study but these did not vary with poultry production systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0310010","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,28]],"date-time":"2024-10-28T17:22:56Z","timestamp":1730136176000},"page":"e0310010","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Virulence, multiple drug resistance, and biofilm-formation in Salmonella species isolated from layer, broiler, and dual-purpose indigenous chickens"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7626-4796","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sicelo B.","family":"Dlamini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victor","family":"Mlambo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caven Mguvane","family":"Mnisi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Collins Njie","family":"Ateba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,28]]},"reference":[{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0310010.ref001","first-page":"1264","article-title":"A review of antimicrobial resistance in poultry farming within low-resource settings","volume":"10","author":"HD Hedman","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Anim"},{"key":"pone.0310010.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2016.03.001","article-title":"Antibiotic and synthetic growth promoters in animal diets: review of impact and analytical methods","volume":"72","author":"MG Ronquillo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food control"},{"issue":"10325","key":"pone.0310010.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)02724-0","article-title":"Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: a systematic analysis","volume":"399","author":"CJ Murray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0310010.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2011.07.028","article-title":"The next generation of bacteriophage therapy","volume":"14","author":"TK Lu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr Opin Microbiol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0310010.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psj.2022.101716","article-title":"The control of poultry salmonellosis using organic agents: an updated overview","volume":"101","author":"MT El-Saadony","year":"2022","journal-title":"Poult. 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