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However, little is known about the influence of intestinal protozoa on the regulation of the immune response. In this study, we analyzed the regulation of the immune response of germ-free mice transplanted with fecal microbiota (FMT) from individuals with multiple parasitic protozoans (P) and non-parasitized individuals (NP). We determined the production of intestinal cytokines, the lymphocyte populations in both the colon and the spleen, and the genetic expression of markers of intestinal epithelial integrity. We observed a general downregulation of the intestinal immune response in mice receiving FMT-P. We found significantly lower intestinal production of the cytokines IL-6, TNF, IFN-\u03b3, MCP-1, IL-10, and IL-12 in the FMT-P. Furthermore, a significant decrease in the proportion of CD3+, CD4+, and Foxp3+ T regulatory cells (Treg) was observed in both, the colon and spleen with FMT-P in contrast to FMT-NP. We also found that in FMT-P mice there was a significant decrease in tjp1 expression in all three regions of the small intestine; ocln in the ileum; reg3\u03b3 in the duodenum and relm\u03b2 in both the duodenum and ileum. We also found an increase in colonic mucus layer thickness in mice colonized with FMT-P in contrast with FMT-NP. Finally, our results suggest that gut protozoa, such as <jats:italic>Blastocystis hominis<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Entamoeba coli<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Endolimax nana<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Entamoeba histolytica\/E<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>dispar<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Iodamoeba b\u00fctschlii<\/jats:italic>, and <jats:italic>Chilomastix mesnili<\/jats:italic> consortia affect the immunoinflammatory state and induce functional changes in the intestine via the gut microbiota. Likewise, it allows us to establish an FMT model in germ-free mice as a viable alternative to explore the effects that exposure to intestinal parasites could have on the immune response in humans.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0312775","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,28]],"date-time":"2024-10-28T17:23:31Z","timestamp":1730136211000},"page":"e0312775","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Fecal microbiota transplantation from protozoa-exposed donors downregulates immune response in a germ-free mouse model, its role in immune response and physiology of the intestine"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Oswaldo","family":"Partida-Rodr\u00edguez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric M.","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6688-0595","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sarah E.","family":"Woodward","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mihai","family":"Cirstea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lisa A.","family":"Reynolds","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charisse","family":"Petersen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0393-5712","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Stefanie L.","family":"Vogt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9211-240X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jorge","family":"Pe\u00f1a-D\u00edaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lisa","family":"Thorson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marie-Claire","family":"Arrieta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric G.","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liliana","family":"Rojas-Vel\u00e1zquez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patricia","family":"Moran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Enrique","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez Rivas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ang\u00e9lica","family":"Serrano-V\u00e1zquez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Horacio","family":"P\u00e9rez-Ju\u00e1rez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Javier","family":"Torres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0574-4538","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Cecilia","family":"Xim\u00e9nez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"B. 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