{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T22:45:06Z","timestamp":1783723506157,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]],"date-time":"2025-01-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737676800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"Academy of Finland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["341558"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["341558"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The aim of the study was to find whether certain meaningful moments in the learning process are noticeable through features of voice and how acoustic voice analyses can be utilized in learning research. The material consisted of recordings of nine university students as they were completing tasks concerning direct electric circuits as part of their course of teacher education in physics. Prosodic features of voice\u2014fundamental frequency (F0), sound pressure level (SPL), acoustic voice quality measured by LTAS, and pausing\u2014were investigated. The results showed that instances of confusion and understanding were manifested in acoustic parameters. F0 was significant in characterizing the both kind of learning instances. Confusion had lower SPL and alpha ratio, indicating that voice quality was softer than in understanding. Degree of voice pauses was lower in understanding, suggesting less hesitation or need for clarification for understanding compared to confusion. Voice research adds to the research of learning as speaker\u00b4s voice is affected by the different instances in the process of learning. This research approach can be used for identification of important instances of learning and directing these instances to closer analysis of content or interaction to further understand the learning processes. Therefore, this study is a novel contribution to the study of learning as it adds acoustic voice and speech analyses to the discipline.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0314344","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]],"date-time":"2025-01-24T19:08:18Z","timestamp":1737745698000},"page":"e0314344","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Investigating the moments of \u201caha\u201d and \u201chmm\u201d through acoustic analysis of voice and speech in pre-service physics teacher education\u2013A novel method for identifying significant learning moments"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1705-0920","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Kati","family":"J\u00e4rvinen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anne-Maria","family":"Laukkanen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna-Leena","family":"K\u00e4hk\u00f6nen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pasi","family":"Nieminen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Terhi","family":"M\u00e4ntyl\u00e4","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0314344.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1023\/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3","article-title":"Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn?.","volume":"16","author":"CE Hmelo-Silver","year":"2004","journal-title":"Educational psychology review."},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0314344.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hpe.2016.01.004","article-title":"Problem-based learning: An overview of its process and impact on learning.","volume":"2","author":"EH Yew","year":"2016","journal-title":"Health professions education."},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0314344.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1551-6709.2009.01017.x","article-title":"Argumentation and explanation in conceptual change: Indications from protocol analyses of peer\u2010to\u2010peer dialog.","volume":"33","author":"CS Asterhan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cognitive science"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref004","first-page":"55","volume-title":"Intentional conceptual change","author":"N de Leeuw","year":"2003"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1057\/s41599-022-01129-0","article-title":"Going beyond the AHA! moment: insight discovery for transdisciplinary research and learning","volume":"9","author":"BJ Pearce","year":"2022","journal-title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0314344.ref006","first-page":"1408","article-title":"It\u2019s a kind of magic\u2014what self-reports can reveal about the phenomenology of insight problem solving.","volume":"8","author":"AH Danek","year":"2014","journal-title":"Frontiers in psychology."},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/2930.003.0018","volume-title":"Explanation and cognition","author":"A. Gopnik","year":"2000"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0314344.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8721.2009.01638.x","article-title":"The Aha! moment: The cognitive neuroscience of insight","volume":"18","author":"J Kounios","year":"2009","journal-title":"Current directions in psychological science"},{"issue":"65","key":"pone.0314344.ref009","first-page":"1:71","article-title":"The cognitive neuroscience of insight","volume":"1","author":"J Kounios","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annual review of psychology"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref010","first-page":"153","article-title":"Confusion can be beneficial for learning, Learning and Instruction.","volume":"29","author":"S D\u2019Mello","year":"2014"},{"issue":"49","key":"pone.0314344.ref011","first-page":"1","article-title":"Understanding Difficulties and Resulting Confusion in Learning: An Integrative Review.","volume":"3","author":"J Lodge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Frontiers in Education."},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref012","volume-title":"Emotions at School.","author":"R Pekrun","year":"2018"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref013","article-title":"The Influences of Emotion on Learning and Memory.","author":"CM Tyng","year":"2017"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2022.826852","article-title":"Clarifying the Relation Between Epistemic Emotions and Learning by Using Experience Sampling Method and Pre-posttest Design.","volume":"7","author":"E Vilhunen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Educ"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref015","volume-title":"Learning science: The value of crafting engagement in science environments.","author":"B Schneider","year":"2020"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1545","DOI":"10.1007\/s10763-022-10310-5","article-title":"Epistemic Emotions and Observations Are Intertwined in Scientific Sensemaking: A Study among Upper Secondary Physics Students","volume":"21","author":"E Vilhunen","year":"2023","journal-title":"International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education"},{"issue":"19","key":"pone.0314344.ref017","first-page":"1:3","article-title":"Conducting Video Research in the Learning Sciences: Guidance on Selection, Analysis, Technology, and Ethics.","volume":"27","author":"SJ Derry","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Learn Sci."},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315109213","volume-title":"Video-based Research in Education: Cross-disciplinary Perspectives","author":"L Xu","year":"2018"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139166621","author":"J. Laver","year":"1994","journal-title":"Principles on Phonetics. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1348\/000709909X479853","article-title":"The analysis of classroom talk: Methods and methodologies","volume":"80","author":"N. Mercer","year":"2010","journal-title":"British Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0314344.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03196507","article-title":"Paralinguistic correlates of conceptual structure.","volume":"10","author":"BJ Barr","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychonomic Bulletin & Review."},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref022","volume-title":"Affective Dialogue Systems","author":"N. Campbell","year":"2004"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.21437\/Interspeech.2004-320","article-title":"Perception of affect in speech\u2014towards an automatic processing of paralinguistic information in spoken conversation.","author":"N. Campbell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proceedings Interspeech"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref024","article-title":"Prosodic Cues of Speech Under Stress\u2014Phonetic Exploration of Finnish Emergency Calls","author":"L. Tavi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Academic dissertation. Publications of the University of Eastern Finland. Dissertations in Education, Humanities, and Theology: No 154. University of Eastern Finland. Joensuu"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0314344.ref025","first-page":"11","article-title":"Acoustic and EGG analyses of emotional utterances, Logopedics Phoniatrics Vocology.","volume":"38","author":"T Waaramaa","year":"2013"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-0173(02)00248-5","article-title":"The human amygdala and the emotional evaluation of sensory stimuli (review).","volume":"41","author":"DH Zald","year":"2003","journal-title":"Brain Research Reviews"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0314344.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1121\/1.418114","article-title":"Prosodic features at discourse boundaries of different strength","volume":"101","author":"M. Swerts","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of the Acoustical Society of America"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0314344.ref028","first-page":"1","article-title":"A Study of the Relationship between Acoustic Features of \u201cb\u00e6le\u201d and the Paralinguistic Information","volume":"29","author":"B. Alinezhad","year":"2010","journal-title":"The Journal of Teaching Language Skills (JTLS)."},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0314344.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2004.01.008","article-title":"Thinking the voice: neural correlates of voice perception.","volume":"8","author":"P Belin","year":"2004","journal-title":"TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0314344.ref030","first-page":"156","article-title":"Emotions in freely varying and mono-pitched vowels, acoustic and EGG analyses, Logopedics Phoniatrics Vocology.","volume":"40","author":"T Waaramaa","year":"2014"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0314344.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvoice.2008.04.004","article-title":"Perception of Emotional Valences and Activity Levels from Vowel Segments of Continuous Speech","volume":"24","author":"T. Waaramaa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Voice"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.3109\/14015439709075330","article-title":"On the perception of emotions in speech: the role of voice quality","volume":"224","author":"A-M Laukkanen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Logopedics Phoniatrics Vocology"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.99.2.143","article-title":"Vocal affect expression: A review and a model for future research.","volume":"99","author":"KR Scherer","year":"1986","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1006\/jpho.1996.0017","article-title":"Physical variation related to stress and emotionally state: a preliminary study","volume":"24","author":"A-M Laukkanen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Phonetics"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-6393(02)00082-1","article-title":"The role of voice quality in communicating emotion, mood and attitude.","volume":"40","author":"C Gobl","year":"2003","journal-title":"Speech Communication."},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0314344.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.14786\/flr.v6i3.371","article-title":"It\u2019s Not Only What You Say, But How You Say It: Investigating the Potential of Prosodic Analysis as a Method to Study Teacher\u2019s Talk.","volume":"6","author":"R H\u00e4m\u00e4l\u00e4inen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Frontline Learning Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0314344.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1119\/1.1614813","article-title":"Students\u2019 understanding of direct current resistive electrical circuits","volume":"72","author":"PV Engelhardt","year":"2004","journal-title":"American journal of physics"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0314344.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1044\/1058-0360.0603.66","article-title":"The Voice Handicap Index (VHI): development and validation.","volume":"6","author":"BH Jacobson","year":"1997","journal-title":"American Journal of Speech Language Pathology"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1007\/s00106-007-1594-9","article-title":"Grading of the Voice Handicap Index","volume":"56","author":"E Gr\u00e4\u00dfel","year":"2008","journal-title":"HNO"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1080\/14015430902839185","article-title":"Voice handicap index in Swedish.","volume":"34","author":"AC Ohlsson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Logopedics Phoniatrics Vocology"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5651","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-85130-8","article-title":"Acoustic voice characteristics with and without wearing a facemask.","volume":"11","author":"DD Nguyen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3359","DOI":"10.1121\/10.0011400","article-title":"The impact of face masks on spectral acoustics of speech: Effect of clear and loud speech styles","volume":"151","author":"T Knowles","year":"2022","journal-title":"The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0314344.ref043","first-page":"994","article-title":"Research as a guide for curriculum development: An example from introductory electricity.","volume":"60","author":"LC McDermott","year":"1992","journal-title":"Part I: Investigation of student understanding. American journal of physics"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0314344.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-017-9807-4","article-title":"Features of instructional talk predictive of reading comprehension.","volume":"31","author":"CJ Michener","year":"2018","journal-title":"Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal."},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref045","first-page":"19","article-title":"Intercoder Reliability in Qualitative Research: Debates and Practical Guidelines.","author":"C O\u2019Connor","year":"2020","journal-title":"International Journal of Qualitative Methods"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108644198.014","volume-title":"Cambridge Handbook of Phonetics.","author":"DJ Hirst","year":"2021"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref047","volume-title":"Fundamentals of Acoustics. Architectural Acoustics (2nd edition).","author":"M. Long","year":"2014"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0314344.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1109\/T-AFFC.2011.14","article-title":"Interdependencies among Voice Source Parameters in Emotional Speech","volume":"2","author":"J Sundberg","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref049","volume-title":"The Phonetic Description of Voice Quality","author":"J. Laver","year":"1980"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref050","unstructured":"Boersma P, Weenink . Praat: Doing phonetics by computer. Version 6.0.49. Praat: doing Phonetics by Computer. https:\/\/uvafon.hum.uva.nl\/praat\/, accessed Oct 5th 2021."},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0314344.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0232209","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0232209","article-title":"Speaking to a common tune: Between-speaker convergence in voice fundamental frequency in a joint speech production task.","volume":"15","author":"V Aubanel","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS ONE."},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref052","first-page":"5","article-title":"Acoustic-prosodic Entrainment and Rapport in Collaborative Learning Dialogues.","author":"N Lubold","year":"2014","journal-title":"MLA \u201914: Proceedings of the 2014 ACM workshop on Multimodal Learning Analytics Workshop and Grand Challenge."},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref053","article-title":"A Comparison of Acoustic-Prosodic Entrainment in Face-to-Face and Remote Collaborative Learning Dialogues","author":"N Lubold","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE Workshop on Spoken Language Technologies"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0314344.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.97.3.412","article-title":"Communicating emotion: The role of prosodic features","volume":"97","author":"RW Frick","year":"1985","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0314344.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvoice.2006.09.006","article-title":"Acoustic and Perceptual Analyses of Brazilian Male Actors\u2019 and Nonactors\u2019 Voices: Long-term Average Spectrum and the \u2018\u2018Actor\u2019s Formant\u201d.","volume":"22","author":"S Master","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Voice"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1121\/1.2208451","article-title":"Effects of vocal loudness variation on spectrum balance as reflected by the alpha measure of long-term-average spectra of speech","volume":"120","author":"J Sundberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America"},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1016\/S0095-4470(19)30704-1","article-title":"Acoustic and perceptual analysis of vocal dysfunction","volume":"14","author":"B Hammarberg","year":"1986","journal-title":"Journal of Phonetics"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0314344.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1080\/02699930126095","article-title":"The contribution of speech rate and pitch variation to the perception of vocal emotions in a German and an American sample.","volume":"15","author":"C Breitenstein","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cognition & Emotion."},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref059","first-page":"178","article-title":"The emergence of rhythmic strategies for clarifying speech: variation of syllable rate and pausing in adults, children and teenagers. Conference paper: 10th International Speech Production Seminar.","author":"V Hazan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cologne, Germany,"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0314344.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-818X.2008.00112.x","article-title":"Speaking and Hearing Clearly: Talker and Listener Factors in Speaking Style Changes.","volume":"3","author":"R Smiljani\u0107","year":"2009","journal-title":"Language and Linguistics Compass."},{"key":"pone.0314344.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1007\/s12046-011-0041-5","article-title":"Glottal inverse filtering analysis of human voice production\u2014A review of estimation and parameterization methods of the glottal excitation and their applications","volume":"36","author":"P. Alku","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sadhana"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0314344.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1080\/14015430701855333","article-title":"TKK Aparat: An environment for voice inverse filtering and parameterization,","volume":"33","author":"M. Airas","year":"2008","journal-title":"Logopedics Phoniatrics Vocology"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0314344","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]],"date-time":"2025-01-24T19:08:45Z","timestamp":1737745725000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0314344"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Gaoxia","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]]},"references-count":62,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0314344","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,24]]}}}