{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T17:02:01Z","timestamp":1770742921212,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,10]],"date-time":"2025-04-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744243200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS ONE"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Phylloquinone (Phyllo) or vitamin K1 is mostly available in plant-based foods such as spinach and lettuce. Because Phyllo absorption in the human gut is low, foods with significantly high levels of Phyllo can aid in maintaining adequate vitamin K levels when consumed. We conducted two experiments, i.e., monochromatic and broadband, to understand the effects of light quality on enhancing Phyllo levels in lettuce. Both experiments used green romaine lettuce and a customized indoor growth system with light emitting diode (LED) lights. We measured fresh weight (FW), dry weight, leaf area, leaf number, and Phyllo levels in both experiments. Photosynthesis (A)- photon flux density (<jats:italic>PPFD<\/jats:italic>) response curves were measured in the second experiment. In the first experiment, plants were grown under six monochromatic light treatments viz., ultraviolet (UV<jats:sub>389<\/jats:sub>), blue (B<jats:sub>450<\/jats:sub>), green (G<jats:sub>521<\/jats:sub>), red (R<jats:sub>632<\/jats:sub>), hyper-red (R<jats:sub>662<\/jats:sub>), and far-red (FR<jats:sub>733<\/jats:sub>) during the entire growth period. Phyllo level was higher in UV<jats:sub>389<\/jats:sub> and not different among other treatments. Vegetative growth parameters trended in the order of R<jats:sub>632<\/jats:sub>\u2009&gt; R<jats:sub>662<\/jats:sub>\/G<jats:sub>521<\/jats:sub>\u2009&gt; B<jats:sub>450<\/jats:sub>\u2009&gt; UV<jats:sub>389<\/jats:sub>\u2009&gt; FR<jats:sub>733<\/jats:sub>. These results suggested that UV<jats:sub>389<\/jats:sub> can increase Phyllo levels but its addition can have a negative effect on vegetative growth. In the second experiment, plants were grown under two treatments viz., UV<jats:sub>389<\/jats:sub> substituted in the broadband light (40% of total light) during the stationary growth stage (UV<jats:sub>sub<\/jats:sub>) and control (broadband light without substitution). Results indicated that FW was lower by 24% but Phyllo level increased by approximately 175% in the UV<jats:sub>sub<\/jats:sub> treatment compared to control. These results suggest that UV<jats:sub>389<\/jats:sub> provided during the stationary growth phase can enhance Phyllo, however, further lowering the percentage of UV<jats:sub>389<\/jats:sub> may be required to minimize the negative effect on vegetative growth. Analysis of A-<jats:italic>PPFD<\/jats:italic> curves indicated lower operating photosynthesis (A<jats:sub>OP<\/jats:sub>) and light use efficiency (LUE) in the UV<jats:sub>sub<\/jats:sub> compared to control. Analysis indicated that UV-A light provided during the stationary growth stage contributed little to A<jats:sub>OP<\/jats:sub>. This suggests that increased Phyllo levels from UV-A exposure did not enhance A but likely provided photoprotection by channeling excess excitation energy through alternate pathways.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0319469","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,10]],"date-time":"2025-04-10T17:24:03Z","timestamp":1744305843000},"page":"e0319469","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Enhancing phylloquinone levels using ultraviolet-A radiation in indoor farming"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Yuyao","family":"Kong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2443-8707","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Krishna","family":"Nemali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0319469.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1007\/s13580-015-1064-3","article-title":"Growth, photosynthetic and antioxidant parameters of two lettuce cultivars as affected by red, green, and blue light-emitting diodes","volume":"56","author":"KH Son","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hortic Environ Biotechnol"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2019.01042","article-title":"Short-Term Ultraviolet (UV)-A Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Radiation Improves Biomass and Bioactive Compounds of Kale","volume":"10","author":"J-H Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Plant Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0319469.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1007\/s00344-020-10131-2","article-title":"Plant Growth and Photosynthetic Characteristics of Soybean Seedlings Under Different LED Lighting Quality Conditions","volume":"40","author":"L Fang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Plant Growth Regul"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref004","article-title":"Potential profitability and economic success of indoor agriculture in the United States","author":"S Valle de Souza","year":"2021"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0319469.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2369","DOI":"10.3390\/su15032369","article-title":"Seeds of industry sustainability: Consumer attitudes towards indoor agriculture benefits versus its advanced technology","volume":"15","author":"J Seong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sustain"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envexpbot.2018.05.010","article-title":"Effect of green light on nitrate reduction and edible quality of hydroponically grown lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) under short-term continuous light from red and blue light-emitting diodes","volume":"153","author":"Z Bian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ Exp Botany"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0319469.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e99010","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0099010","article-title":"Economic analysis of greenhouse lighting: light emitting diodes vs. high intensity discharge fixtures","volume":"9","author":"JA Nelson","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0319469.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s13580-016-0133-6","article-title":"Increase in biomass and bioactive compounds in lettuce under various ratios of red to far-red LED light supplemented with blue LED light","volume":"57","author":"M Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology"},{"issue":"23","key":"pone.0319469.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7405","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26237405","article-title":"Supplementary Far-Red and Blue Lights Influence the Biomass and Phytochemical Profiles of Two Lettuce Cultivars in Plant Factory","volume":"26","author":"Y Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667407","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2021.667407","article-title":"Blue and Far-Red Light Affect Area and Number of Individual Leaves to Influence Vegetative Growth and Pigment Synthesis in Lettuce","volume":"12","author":"Y Kong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Plant Sci"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0319469.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1357","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114513001013","article-title":"The role of menaquinones (vitamin K2) in human health","volume":"110","author":"JWJ Beulens","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br J Nutr"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0319469.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/s40620-019-00685-0","article-title":"Vitamin K effects in human health: new insights beyond bone and cardiovascular health","volume":"33","author":"M Fusaro","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Nephrol"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref013","unstructured":"National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. Vitamin K. 2021. https:\/\/odsodnihgov\/factsheets\/VitaminK-HealthProfessional\/"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref014","article-title":"Reduced vitamin K status as a potentially modifiable risk factor of severe coronavirus disease 2019","author":"ASM Dofferhoff","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clinical Infectious Diseases"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref015","first-page":"230","article-title":"Vitamin K","author":"G. Ferland","year":"2012"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref016","author":"Institute of Medicine. Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium,zinc.","year":"2001"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0319469.ref017","first-page":"298","article-title":"Determination of phylloquinone and menaquinones in food. Effect of food matrix on circulating vitamin K concentrations","volume":"30","author":"LJ Schurgers","year":"2000","journal-title":"Haemostasis"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0319469.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3002(55)90295-X","article-title":"Vitamin K as a cofactor of photosynthetic phosphorylation","volume":"16","author":"DI Arnon","year":"1955","journal-title":"Biochim Biophys Acta"},{"issue":"52","key":"pone.0319469.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40461","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M609412200","article-title":"Deficiency in phylloquinone (vitamin K1) methylation affects prenyl quinone distribution, photosystem I abundance, and anthocyanin accumulation in the Arabidopsis AtmenG mutant","volume":"281","author":"A Lohmann","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0319469.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1848","DOI":"10.1093\/plphys\/kiab221","article-title":"Phylloquinone is the principal Mehler reaction site within photosystem I in high light","volume":"186","author":"M Kozuleva","year":"2021","journal-title":"Plant Physiol"},{"issue":"1402","key":"pone.0319469.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2000.0703","article-title":"The water-water cycle as alternative photon and electron sinks","volume":"355","author":"K Asada","year":"2000","journal-title":"Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0319469.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-1097.1989.tb05548.x","article-title":"SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION AT THE EARTH\u2019S SURFACE","volume":"50","author":"JE Frederick","year":"1989","journal-title":"Photochem & Photobiology"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0319469.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0010(20000501)80:6<637::AID-JSFA603>3.0.CO;2-1","article-title":"Existing and potential applications of ultraviolet light in the food industry - a critical review","volume":"80","author":"T Bintsis","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Sci Food Agric"},{"issue":"23","key":"pone.0319469.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5678","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25235678","article-title":"Effects of Supplementary Blue and UV-A LED Lights on Morphology and Phytochemicals of Brassicaceae Baby-Leaves","volume":"25","author":"Y Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0319469.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1676","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.10788","article-title":"Blue and UV-A light wavelengths positively affected accumulation profiles of healthy compounds in pak-choi","volume":"101","author":"P Mao","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Sci Food Agric"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2019.01563","article-title":"UVA Radiation Is Beneficial for Yield and Quality of Indoor Cultivated Lettuce","volume":"10","author":"Y Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Plant Sci"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858433","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2022.858433","article-title":"Mild-Intensity UV-A Radiation Applied Over a Long Duration Can Improve the Growth and Phenolic Contents of Sweet Basil","volume":"13","author":"S Kang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Plant Sci"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-1571(71)90022-7","article-title":"The action spectrum, absorptance and quantum yield of photosynthesis in crop plants","volume":"9","author":"KJ McCree","year":"1971","journal-title":"Agricultural Meteorology"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0319469.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1052","DOI":"10.1562\/2004-12-06-RA-392","article-title":"The use of wavelength-selective plastic cladding materials in horticulture: understanding of crop and fungal responses through the assessment of biological spectral weighting functions","volume":"81","author":"ND Paul","year":"2005","journal-title":"Photochem Photobiol"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128727","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2020.128727","article-title":"UV-A and FR irradiation improves growth and nutritional properties of lettuce grown in an artificial light plant factory","volume":"345","author":"R He","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Chem"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotobiol.2013.08.013","article-title":"Enhancement of growth, photosynthetic performance and yield by exclusion of ambient UV components in C3 and C4 plants","volume":"127","author":"S Kataria","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Photochem Photobiol B"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envexpbot.2014.06.016","article-title":"Effects of enhanced UV radiation and water availability on performance, biomass production and photoprotective mechanisms of Laurus nobilis seedlings","volume":"109","author":"M Bernal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environmental and Experimental Botany"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envexpbot.2022.104895","article-title":"Phenotypic plasticity and nutritional quality of three kale cultivars (Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala) under field, greenhouse, and growth chamber environments","volume":"199","author":"EL Ashenafi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environmental and Experimental Botany"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref034","first-page":"111","article-title":"Growth analysis and biomass distribution of \u2018unapal-maravilla\u2019 tomato","volume":"821","author":"V Meneses","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int Symp Tomato Tropics"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0319469.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fcr.2004.01.005","article-title":"Effect of water stress at different development stages on vegetative and reproductive growth of corn","volume":"89","author":"R \u00c7akir","year":"2004","journal-title":"Field Crops Research"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110977","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plantsci.2021.110977","article-title":"Combination of red and blue light induces anthocyanin and other secondary metabolite biosynthesis pathways in an age-dependent manner in Batavia lettuce","volume":"310","author":"BJR Sng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Plant Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0319469.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0285180","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0285180","article-title":"Fixed vs. variable light quality in vertical farming: Impacts on vegetative growth and nutritional quality of lettuce","volume":"18","author":"Y Kong","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0319469.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envexpbot.2009.06.011","article-title":"Effects of supplemental light quality on growth and phytochemicals of baby leaf lettuce","volume":"67","author":"Q Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ Exp Bot"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0319469.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-2728(69)90168-6","article-title":"Fluorescence and oxygen evolution from Chlorella pyrenoidosa","volume":"189","author":"C Bonaventura","year":"1969","journal-title":"Biochim Biophys Acta"},{"issue":"345","key":"pone.0319469.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1093\/jexbot\/51.345.659","article-title":"Chlorophyll fluorescence--a practical guide","volume":"51","author":"K Maxwell","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Exp Bot"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609977","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2020.609977","article-title":"Adding Far-Red to Red-Blue Light-Emitting Diode Light Promotes Yield of Lettuce at Different Planting Densities","volume":"11","author":"W Jin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Plant Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0319469.ref042","first-page":"704","article-title":"Canopy Size and Light Use Efficiency Explain Growth Differences between Lettuce and Mizuna in Vertical Farms","volume":"10","author":"TC Jayalath","year":"2021","journal-title":"Plants (Basel)"},{"issue":"1\u20133","key":"pone.0319469.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-2728(01)00203-1","article-title":"Energy transfer and trapping in photosystem I","author":"B Gobets","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biochim Biophys Acta"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0319469.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbabio.2005.05.005","article-title":"Photosynthetic activity of far-red light in green plants","author":"H Pettai","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biochim Biophys Acta"},{"key":"pone.0319469.ref045","article-title":"Indoor farms could fine-tune the flavors of our food Horizon Magazine","author":"S Gillman","year":"2018","journal-title":"EU Res Innov Mag"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0319469.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plaphy.2010.08.016","article-title":"Reactive oxygen species and antioxidant machinery in abiotic stress tolerance in crop plants","volume":"48","author":"SS Gill","year":"2010","journal-title":"Plant Physiol Biochem"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0319469.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1111\/nph.12132","article-title":"From ozone depletion to agriculture: understanding the role of UV radiation in sustainable crop production","volume":"197","author":"JJ Wargent","year":"2013","journal-title":"New Phytol"},{"issue":"32","key":"pone.0319469.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10200","DOI":"10.1021\/bi020272+","article-title":"The mechanism of UV-A radiation-induced inhibition of photosystem II electron transport studied by EPR and chlorophyll fluorescence","volume":"41","author":"I Vass","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0319469.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1007\/s13580-013-0097-8","article-title":"Growth and phenolic content of sow thistle grown in a closed-type plant production system with a UV-A or UV-B lamp","volume":"54","author":"M Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0319469.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy10060761","article-title":"The photosynthetic performance of red leaf lettuce under UV-A irradiation","volume":"10","author":"G Samuoliene","year":"2020","journal-title":"Agronomy"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0319469.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.6227","article-title":"Growth and phenolic compounds of Lactuca sativa L. grown in a closed-type plant production system with UV-A, -B, or -C lamp","volume":"94","author":"M-J Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Sci Food Agric"},{"issue":"01","key":"pone.0319469.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.4236\/ajps.2021.121007","article-title":"Supplemental UV-A and UV-B Affect the Nutritional Quality of Lettuce and Tomato: Health-Promoting Phytochemicals and Essential Nutrients","volume":"12","author":"M Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"AJPS"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0319469.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aob.a084919","article-title":"The Cost of Maintenance Processes in Plant Cells","volume":"39","author":"FWTP De vries","year":"1975","journal-title":"Annals of Botany"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0319469.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.21273\/JASHS.129.3.0416","article-title":"Light Effects on Wax Begonia: Photosynthesis, Growth Respiration, Maintenance Respiration, and Carbon Use Efficiency","volume":"129","author":"KS Nemali","year":"2004","journal-title":"jashs"}],"container-title":["PLOS ONE"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0319469","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,10]],"date-time":"2025-04-10T17:24:15Z","timestamp":1744305855000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0319469"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Elias","family":"Kaiser","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,10]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,10]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0319469","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,10]]}}}