{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T18:43:25Z","timestamp":1763059405759,"version":"3.45.0"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762992000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2230023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2230023"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Just as individuals\u2019 personal social network connections shape their susceptibility to disease, the structure of larger networks in communities shapes the extent of disease spread. We examine how heterogeneity in network structure at the population level affects the spread of disease \u2013 namely, COVID-19 \u2013 considering varying levels of disease transmissibility and in-person contact rates. Using dynamic simulations that take into account network structure, social contact rates given contextual features of the community (informed by real-life data on family local family structure, schools, workplaces, and daily shopping activities), and disease infection rates, we first confirm that the presence of network hubs and high network degree skewness results in a higher level of infected peak prevalence with infectious diseases such as COVID-19 during periods of low to moderate transmissibility. However, this effect is amplified during lulls in disease spread and is suppressed during periods of greater transmissibility, rendering social network structure more significant during lulls. Moreover, in the case of already highly transmissible diseases, the role of hubs and severe degree skewness is already more continually suppressed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0322687","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T18:37:38Z","timestamp":1763059058000},"page":"e0322687","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Amplification of the power of network hubs and degree skewness over infectious disease spread during lulls"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3204-1213","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Benjamin","family":"Cornwell","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-5901-6982","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Shiyu","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shane G.","family":"Henderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4170-4648","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Gen","family":"Meredith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0322687.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2019.100425","article-title":"Social capital and health: a systematic review of systematic reviews","volume":"8","author":"A Ehsan","year":"2019","journal-title":"SSM Popul Health"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0322687.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.89.8.1187","article-title":"Social capital and self-rated health: a contextual analysis","volume":"89","author":"I Kawachi","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0322687.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2005.06.008","article-title":"Social capital: an individual or collective resource for health?","volume":"62","author":"W Poortinga","year":"2006","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2019.112360","article-title":"Social capital and physical health: an updated review of the literature for 2007-2018","volume":"236","author":"J Rodgers","year":"2019","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0322687.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1016\/S0277-9536(00)00065-4","article-title":"From social integration to health: Durkheim in the new millennium","volume":"51","author":"LF Berkman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-6772-0_16","article-title":"The social psychology of stress, health, and coping.","volume-title":"Handbook of Social Psychology","author":"D Carr","year":"2013"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0322687.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.2004.029678","article-title":"Social capital and mental illness: a systematic review","volume":"59","author":"MJ De Silva","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Epidemiol Community Health"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-71311-3","volume-title":"Social capital and health","author":"I Kawachi","year":"2008"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.soc.34.040507.134601","article-title":"Social networks and health","volume":"34","author":"KP Smith","year":"2008","journal-title":"Annu Rev Sociol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0322687.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1177\/0022146510395592","article-title":"Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental health","volume":"52","author":"PA Thoits","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Health Soc Behav"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0322687.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/geroni\/igx025","article-title":"Family relationships and well-being","volume":"1","author":"PA Thomas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Innov Aging"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0322687.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1057\/palgrave.sth.8700001","article-title":"Social capital, inequality and health: the Durkheimian revival","volume":"1","author":"B Turner","year":"2003","journal-title":"Soc Theory Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0322687.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1177\/002214650905000103","article-title":"Social disconnectedness, perceived isolation, and health among older adults","volume":"50","author":"EY Cornwell","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Health Soc Behav"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0322687.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-073117-041421","article-title":"Social networks and health: new developments in diffusion, online and offline","volume":"45","author":"J Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu Rev Sociol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0322687.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyh013","article-title":"Health by association? Social capital, social theory, and the political economy of public health","volume":"33","author":"S Szreter","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0322687.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.98.052313","article-title":"Relevance of backtracking paths in recurrent-state epidemic spreading on networks","volume":"98","author":"C Castellano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phys Rev E"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0322687.ref017","article-title":"Relating topological determinants of complex networks to their spectral properties: structural and dynamical effects","volume":"7","author":"C Castellano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys Rev X"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0322687.ref018","article-title":"Cumulative merging percolation and the epidemic transition of the susceptible-infected-susceptible model in networks","volume":"10","author":"C Castellano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys Rev X"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0322687.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1140\/epjb\/e2007-00114-7","article-title":"Excitable scale free networks","volume":"56","author":"M Copelli","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur Phys J B"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025102","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.83.025102","article-title":"Small but slow world: how network topology and burstiness slow down spreading","volume":"83","author":"M Karsai","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phys Rev E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0322687.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"058101","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.106.058101","article-title":"Predicting criticality and dynamic range in complex networks: effects of topology","volume":"106","author":"DB Larremore","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"066117","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.63.066117","article-title":"Epidemic dynamics and endemic states in complex networks","volume":"63","author":"R Pastor-Satorras","year":"2001","journal-title":"Phys Rev E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys"},{"issue":"20","key":"pone.0322687.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8209","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0900142106","article-title":"The effect of network topology on the stability of discrete state models of genetic control","volume":"106","author":"A Pomerance","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0322687.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"058701","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.100.058701","article-title":"Weighted percolation on directed networks","volume":"100","author":"JG Restrepo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0322687.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.87.925","article-title":"Epidemic processes in complex networks","volume":"87","author":"R Pastor-Satorras","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev Mod Phys"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1038\/srep00371","article-title":"Competing activation mechanisms in epidemics on networks","volume":"2","author":"C Castellano","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"17","key":"pone.0322687.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2015972118","article-title":"Time-dependent heterogeneity leads to transient suppression of the COVID-19 epidemic, not herd immunity","volume":"118","author":"AV Tkachenko","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"6498","key":"pone.0322687.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abb8001","article-title":"Changes in contact patterns shape the dynamics of the COVID-19 outbreak in China","volume":"368","author":"J Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044316","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.104.044316","article-title":"Effect of delayed awareness and fatigue on the efficacy of self-isolation in epidemic control","volume":"104","author":"G De Meijere","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phys Rev E"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0322687.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1005697","article-title":"Projecting social contact matrices in 152 countries using contact surveys and demographic data","volume":"13","author":"K Prem","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Comput Biol"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cnsns.2022.106877","article-title":"Epidemic outbreaks with adaptive prevention on complex networks","volume":"116","author":"DH Silva","year":"2023","journal-title":"Commun Nonlinear Sci Numer Simul"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0322687.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-20990-2","article-title":"Quantifying population contact patterns in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"12","author":"DM Feehan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100605","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epidem.2022.100605","article-title":"Nationally representative social contact patterns among U.S. adults, August 2020-April 2021","volume":"40","author":"KN Nelson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Epidemics"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0322687.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1177\/0748233720970439","article-title":"Clinicians, cooks, and cashiers: Examining health equity and the COVID-19 risks to essential workers","volume":"36","author":"JD Roberts","year":"2020","journal-title":"Toxicol Ind Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0322687.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare8030339","article-title":"Predictors of death rate during the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"8","author":"I Feinhandler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Healthcare (Basel)"},{"issue":"18","key":"pone.0322687.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9866","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18189866","article-title":"Influence of population density for COVID-19 spread in Malaysia: an ecological study","volume":"18","author":"K Ganasegeran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosust.2020.08.008","article-title":"The nature of cities and the Covid-19 pandemic","volume":"46","author":"KY Lai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr Opin Environ Sustain"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0322687.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1097\/00007435-199905000-00003","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic group differences in the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases in the United States: a network explanation","volume":"26","author":"Eo Laumann","year":"1999","journal-title":"Sexually Transmitted Diseases"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2020.100495","article-title":"Determinants of COVID-19 vaccine acceptance in the US","volume":"26","author":"AA Malik","year":"2020","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0322687.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1097\/00007435-200211000-00012","article-title":"Social network effects on the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases","volume":"29","author":"Y Youm","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sex Transm Dis"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0322687.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1642","DOI":"10.1111\/ssqu.12808","article-title":"Social Network Analysis for Coronavirus (COVID-19) in the United States","volume":"101","author":"S Yum","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc Sci Q"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0322687.ref042","article-title":"Bursts of vertex activation and epidemics in evolving networks","volume":"9","author":"LEC Rocha","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Comput Biol"},{"issue":"16","key":"pone.0322687.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2007.1100","article-title":"When individual behaviour matters: homogeneous and network models in epidemiology","volume":"4","author":"S Bansal","year":"2007","journal-title":"J R Soc Interface"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0322687.ref044","article-title":"Effects of heterogeneous and clustered contact patterns on infectious disease dynamics","volume":"7","author":"EM Volz","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS Comput Biol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0322687.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1136\/sextrans-2017-053288","article-title":"Social networks as drivers of syphilis and HIV infection among young men who have sex with men","volume":"94","author":"K Fujimoto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sex Transm Infect"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0322687.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-013-0677-8","article-title":"Structural bridging network position is associated with HIV status in a younger Black men who have sex with men epidemic","volume":"18","author":"NS Shah","year":"2014","journal-title":"AIDS Behav"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0322687.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0233329","article-title":"Is social connectedness a risk factor for the spreading of COVID-19 among older adults? The Italian paradox","volume":"15","author":"G Liotta","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref048","first-page":"170","article-title":"Neighborhood isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"8","author":"T Marlow","year":"2021","journal-title":"Soc Sci"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0322687.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108701","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.89.108701","article-title":"Epidemic threshold in structured scale-free networks","volume":"89","author":"VM Egu\u00edluz","year":"2002","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-4371(99)00393-3","article-title":"Mean-field-type equations for spread of epidemics: the \u2018small world\u2019 model","volume":"274","author":"A Kleczkowski","year":"1999","journal-title":"Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0322687.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtbi.2005.01.011","article-title":"Dynamical patterns of epidemic outbreaks in complex heterogeneous networks","volume":"235","author":"M Barth\u00e9lemy","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Theor Biol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0322687.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"028302","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.117.028302","article-title":"Epidemic extinction and control in heterogeneous networks","volume":"117","author":"J Hindes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0322687.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8581","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-87837-0","article-title":"A social network analysis of the spread of COVID-19 in South Korea and policy implications","volume":"11","author":"W Jo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0322687.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-020-0898-6","article-title":"Social network-based distancing strategies to flatten the COVID-19 curve in a post-lockdown world","volume":"4","author":"P Block","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0322687.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1671","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1211.060255","article-title":"Targeted social distancing design for pandemic influenza","volume":"12","author":"RJ Glass","year":"2006","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0322687.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0258021","article-title":"Correction: How social capital helps communities weather the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"16","author":"CA Makridis","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"52","key":"pone.0322687.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32883","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2012326117","article-title":"COVID-19 lockdown induces disease-mitigating structural changes in mobility networks","volume":"117","author":"F Schlosser","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"13","key":"pone.0322687.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000280","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.13.2000280","article-title":"Only strict quarantine measures can curb the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak in Italy, 2020","volume":"25","author":"H Sj\u00f6din","year":"2020","journal-title":"Euro Surveill"},{"issue":"6533","key":"pone.0322687.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abc8881","article-title":"Infectious diseases and social distancing in nature","volume":"371","author":"S Stockmaier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref060","first-page":"222","article-title":"The small-world network of college classes: implications for epidemic spread on a university campus","volume":"7","author":"K Weeden","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc Sci"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref061","first-page":"73","article-title":"Still a small world? University course enrollment networks before and during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"8","author":"K Weeden","year":"2021","journal-title":"Soc Sci"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0322687.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3000897","article-title":"Superspreading events in the transmission dynamics of SARS-CoV-2: opportunities for interventions and control","volume":"18","author":"BM Althouse","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Biol"},{"issue":"6505","key":"pone.0322687.ref063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abc6810","article-title":"A mathematical model reveals the influence of population heterogeneity on herd immunity to SARS-CoV-2","volume":"369","author":"T Britton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100929","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2021.100929","article-title":"Uncovering transmission patterns of COVID-19 outbreaks: a region-wide comprehensive retrospective study in Hong Kong","volume":"36","author":"Y Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0322687.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0240878","article-title":"A social network model of COVID-19","volume":"15","author":"A Karaivanov","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jue.2020.103314","article-title":"JUE insight: the geographic spread of COVID-19 correlates with the structure of social networks as measured by Facebook","volume":"127","author":"T Kuchler","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Urban Econ"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0322687.ref067","article-title":"The reproductive number of the Delta variant of SARS-CoV-2 is far higher compared to the ancestral SARS-CoV-2 virus","volume":"28","author":"Y Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Travel Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0322687.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0265489","article-title":"Estimation of the basic reproduction number of Alpha and Delta variants of COVID-19 pandemic in Iran","volume":"17","author":"F Sheikhi","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0322687.ref069","article-title":"The effective reproductive number of the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2 is several times relative to Delta","volume":"29","author":"Y Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Travel Med"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0322687.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(17)30307-9","article-title":"The basic reproduction number (R0) of measles: a systematic review","volume":"17","author":"FM Guerra","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"issue":"51","key":"pone.0322687.ref071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22020","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1009094108","article-title":"A high-resolution human contact network for infectious disease transmission","volume":"107","author":"M Salath\u00e9","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0322687.ref072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0107878","article-title":"Contact patterns among high school students","volume":"9","author":"J Fournet","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0322687.ref073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1140\/epjb\/s10051-021-00222-8","article-title":"Differences in social activity increase efficiency of contact tracing","volume":"94","author":"BF Nielsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur Phys J B"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0322687.ref074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1086\/227352","article-title":"The focused organization of social ties","volume":"86","author":"SL Feld","year":"1981","journal-title":"Am J Sociol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0322687.ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1097\/00007435-199307000-00001","article-title":"Contact tracing and the estimation of sexual mixing patterns: the epidemiology of gonococcal infections","volume":"20","author":"GP Garnett","year":"1993","journal-title":"Sex Transm Dis"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1783","DOI":"10.1038\/srep01783","article-title":"Origins of power-law degree distribution in the heterogeneity of human activity in social networks","volume":"3","author":"L Muchnik","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1026485807148","article-title":"Models of the Small World","volume":"101","author":"MEJ Newman","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Stat Phys"},{"issue":"5439","key":"pone.0322687.ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1126\/science.286.5439.509","article-title":"Emergence of scaling in random networks","volume":"286","author":"A Barabasi","year":"1999","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"17","key":"pone.0322687.ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178701","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.92.178701","article-title":"Velocity and hierarchical spread of epidemic outbreaks in scale-free networks","volume":"92","author":"M Barth\u00e9lemy","year":"2004","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"issue":"6684","key":"pone.0322687.ref080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1038\/30918","article-title":"Collective dynamics of \u201csmall-world\u201d networks","volume":"393","author":"DJ Watts","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0322687.ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/s003579900004","article-title":"Estimation and Prediction for Stochastic Blockmodels for Graphs with Latent Block Structure","volume":"14","author":"TAB Snijders","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Classification"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref082","first-page":"17","article-title":"On the evolution of random graphs","volume":"5","author":"PP Erd\u0151s","year":"1960","journal-title":"Publication of the Mathematical Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref083","unstructured":"United States Census Bureau. U.S. population. U.S. and World Population Clock. 2023.Available from: https:\/\/www.census.gov\/popclock\/"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref084","unstructured":"United States Census Bureau. The number of firms and establishments, employment, and annual payroll by state, industry, and enterprise employment size: 2020. 2020 SUSB Annual Data Tables by Establishment Industry. 2020. Available from: https:\/\/www.census.gov\/data\/tables\/2020\/econ\/susb\/2020-susb-annual.html"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref085","unstructured":"U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment status of the civilian population by sex and age. Economic News Release. 2023. Available from: https:\/\/www.bls.gov\/news.release\/empsit.t01.htm"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref086","volume-title":"National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Fast Facts: Educational institutions [Internet]. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences","year":"2023"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref087","unstructured":"National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Private school enrollment [Internet]. Condition of Education. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences; 2024 [cited 2025 Jun 23]. Available from: https:\/\/nces.ed.gov\/programs\/coe\/indicator\/cgc\/private-school-enrollment(nces.ed.gov,nces.ed.gov,ed.gov)"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref088","volume-title":"National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)","year":"2024"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref089","unstructured":"United States Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Juvenile population. OJJDP Statistics Briefing Book. 2021. Available from: https:\/\/www.ojjdp.gov\/ojstatbb\/population\/qa01104.asp?qaDate=202"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref090","unstructured":"United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Retail food sales and sales growth. Retail Trend. 2003. Available from: https:\/\/www.ers.usda.gov\/topics\/food-markets-prices\/retailing-wholesaling\/retail-trends\/"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-50806-1","volume-title":"Mathematics of epidemics on networks: from exact to approximate models","author":"IZ Kiss","year":"2017"},{"issue":"44","key":"pone.0322687.ref092","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1731","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.01731","article-title":"EoN (Epidemics on Networks): a fast, flexible Python package for simulation, analytic approximation, and analysis of epidemics on networks","volume":"4","author":"J Miller","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Open Source Softw"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0322687.ref093","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1006\/tpbi.2001.1525","article-title":"Realistic distributions of infectious periods in epidemic models: changing patterns of persistence and dynamics","volume":"60","author":"AL Lloyd","year":"2001","journal-title":"Theor Popul Biol"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0322687.ref094","article-title":"Incubation period of COVID-19 caused by unique SARS-CoV-2 strains: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"5","author":"Y Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100740","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cegh.2021.100740","article-title":"COVID-19 pandemic and its average recovery time in Indian states","volume":"11","author":"N George","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Epidemiol Glob Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0322687.ref096","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-25908-6","article-title":"Reinfection rate in a cohort of healthcare workers over 2 years of the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"13","author":"AR Guedes","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0322687.ref097","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.4310\/20-SII644","article-title":"Heterogeneity learning for SIRS model: an application to the COVID-19","volume":"14","author":"G Hu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stat Interface"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0322687.ref098","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.3390\/v15040967","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Reinfection and Severity of the Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"15","author":"NN Nguyen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref099","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"016128","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.66.016128","article-title":"Spread of epidemic disease on networks","volume":"66","author":"MEJ Newman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Phys Rev E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0322687.ref100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1714","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-1092-0","article-title":"Clustering and superspreading potential of SARS-CoV-2 infections in Hong Kong","volume":"26","author":"DC Adam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0322687.ref101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118301","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.126.118301","article-title":"COVID-19 superspreading suggests mitigation by social network modulation","volume":"126","author":"BF Nielsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"key":"pone.0322687.ref102","article-title":"Are the SIR and SEIR models suitable to estimate the basic reproduction number for the COVID-19 epidemic?","author":"HM Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"medRxiv"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0322687.ref103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMsa066082","article-title":"The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years","volume":"357","author":"NA Christakis","year":"2007","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0322687","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T18:37:53Z","timestamp":1763059073000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0322687"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Weijun","family":"Yu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]},"references-count":103,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0322687","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]}}}