{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T04:44:14Z","timestamp":1750308254882,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750204800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000057","name":"National Institute of General Medical Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R35GM142863"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R35GM142863"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000057","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The COVID-19 pandemic has accentuated racial and socioeconomic disparities that have existed in the U.S. because of structural racism. We aimed to understand how the legacy of historical redlining policies was associated with COVID-19 incidence in Boston ZIP code tabulation areas (ZCTAs) from March 2020 to December 2022. Data were extracted from the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan, the Boston Public Health Commission, the Boston Planning &amp; Development Agency, and the American Community Survey. We ran a generalized linear model accounting for time to explore the association between historical redlining, characterized as Homeowners\u2019 Loan Corporation (HOLC) grade, and monthly COVID-19 incidence rate. Models were adjusted for the proportion of the ZCTA population identified as non-White, were older than 75, homeowners, and foreign-born. We also accounted for the median household value in each ZCTA. We found no significant association between HOLC grade and monthly COVID-19 incidence rate in Boston (IRR: 0.95; 95% CI: 0.80, 1.12). Downstream effects of redlining, such as gentrification and higher median home value, were associated with a higher monthly COVID-19 incidence (IRR: 1.12; 95% CI: 1.01, 1.25). These results highlight the unique ways Boston\u2019s historical racist policies have manifested themselves in health outcomes today. Place-based context and history is important when examining redlining in public health research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0324020","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T17:21:19Z","timestamp":1750267279000},"page":"e0324020","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The impact of historical redlining policies on community composition and the COVID-19 pandemic in Boston"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-6006-6944","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Nicole B.","family":"Alkhouri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Victoria","family":"Fisher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Isaacson","family":"Michel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Caitlin","family":"O\u2019Connor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5459-8592","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Nadia N.","family":"Abuelezam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0324020.ref001","volume-title":"The lasting impact of historic \u201cRedlining\u201d on neighborhood health: Higher prevalence of COVID-19 risk factors","author":"J Richardson","year":"10"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0324020.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1046","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2020.305656","article-title":"Structural racism, historical redlining, and risk of preterm birth in New York City, 2013-2017","volume":"110","author":"N Krieger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0324020.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMms2025396","article-title":"How structural racism works - racist policies as a root cause of U.S. racial health inequities","volume":"384","author":"ZD Bailey","year":"2021","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-publhealth-040218-043750","article-title":"Racism and Health: Evidence and Needed Research","volume":"40","author":"DR Williams","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu Rev Public Health"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0324020.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwab059","article-title":"A geography of risk: structural racism and coronavirus disease 2019 mortality in the United States","volume":"190","author":"LC Zalla","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0324020.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/s12552-021-09338-z","article-title":"Historical redlining and resident exposure to COVID-19: a study of New York City","volume":"14","author":"M Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Race Soc Probl"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref007","author":"HCS Meier","year":"24"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0324020.ref008","first-page":"355","article-title":"The effects of the 1930s HOLC \u201cRedlining\u201d Maps","volume":"13","author":"D Aaronson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am Econ J"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jue.2022.103462","article-title":"New evidence on redlining by federal housing programs in the 1930s","volume":"141","author":"P Fishback","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Urban Econ"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref010","volume-title":"The physical legacy of racism: how redlining cemented the modern built environment","author":"B An","year":"2019"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0324020.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1687","DOI":"10.1093\/qje\/qjt020","article-title":"Household balance sheets, consumption, and the economic slump*","volume":"128","author":"A Mian","year":"2013","journal-title":"Quarterly J Econ"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0324020.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1086\/427465","article-title":"Urban decline and durable housing","volume":"113","author":"EL Glaeser","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Political Econ"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0324020.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1111\/jofi.12482","article-title":"Mortgage debt overhang: reduced investment by homeowners at risk of default","volume":"72","author":"BT MELZER","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Finance"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.2334914","volume-title":"Negative equity and housing investment","author":"A Haughwout","year":"2013"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0324020.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jue.2003.09.004","article-title":"Reinvestment in the housing stock: the role of construction costs and the supply side","volume":"55","author":"J Gyourko","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Urban Econ"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref016","volume-title":"after 1945","author":"B Nicolaides"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref017","author":"C Ofulue","year":"4"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref018","author":"RK Nelson"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref019","author":"Leydon","year":"13"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref020","article-title":"Separatist city: The Mandela, Massachusetts (Roxbury) movement and the politics of incorporation, self-determination, and community control, 1986\u20131988","volume":"23","author":"Z Miletsky","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trotter Rev"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref021","volume-title":"The death of an American Jewish community: a tragedy of good intentions","author":"H Levine","year":"1992"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref022","volume-title":"Historical trends in Boston neighborhoods since 1950","author":"A Lima","year":"2017"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref023","volume-title":"Historical Boston in context: neighborhood comparisons by decade 1950 to 2015","author":"A Lima","year":"2017"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0324020.ref024","article-title":"The effect of area deprivation on COVID-19 risk in Louisiana","volume":"15","author":"M K C","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0324020.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75001","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP8888","article-title":"COVID-19, the Built Environment, and Health","volume":"129","author":"H Frumkin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthplace.2018.10.004","article-title":"The legacy of redlining in the effect of foreclosures on Detroit residents\u2019 self-rated health","volume":"55","author":"E McClure","year":"2019","journal-title":"Health Place"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0324020.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.92.5.758","article-title":"Housing and health: time again for public health action","volume":"92","author":"J Krieger","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0324020.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1067\/mai.2000.110795","article-title":"Mouse allergen. II. The relationship of mouse allergen exposure to mouse sensitization and asthma morbidity in inner-city children with asthma","volume":"106","author":"W Phipatanakul","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0324020.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1398-9995.1998.tb03859.x","article-title":"Effects of damp and mould in the home on respiratory health: a review of the literature","volume":"53","author":"JK Peat","year":"1998","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"issue":"6689","key":"pone.0324020.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1673","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.298.6689.1673","article-title":"Damp housing, mould growth, and symptomatic health state","volume":"298","author":"SD Platt","year":"1989","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0324020.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.52.3.229","article-title":"Damp housing and asthma: a case-control study","volume":"52","author":"IJ Williamson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0324020.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/89.1.49","article-title":"Lung cancer risk from residential radon: meta-analysis of eight epidemiologic studies","volume":"89","author":"JH Lubin","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Natl Cancer Inst"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.114696","article-title":"Health outcomes in redlined versus non-redlined neighborhoods: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"294","author":"EK Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0324020.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0241327","article-title":"Association of poor housing conditions with COVID-19 incidence and mortality across US counties","volume":"15","author":"K Ahmad","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0324020.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.26707","article-title":"Associations Between Historically Redlined Districts and Racial Disparities in Current Obstetric Outcomes","volume":"4","author":"SJ Hollenbach","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref036","volume-title":"The Color of a Pandemic: The Association Between Historical Residential Redlining and COVID-19 Outcomes in California. In: C14. BURNOUT, DISPARITIES, AND OUTCOMES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC","author":"E Casillas","year":"2022"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref037","unstructured":"Choi Y, Unwin J. Racial impact on infections and deaths due to COVID-19 in New York City."},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref038","volume-title":"Historic redlining indicator for 2000, 2010, and 2020 US census tracts","author":"HCS Meier","year":"2023"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref039","volume-title":"Boston Public Health Commission [Internet]","author":"Boston COVID-19 Dashboard"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref040","author":"2020 Census"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref041","volume-title":"Boston in context: Neighborhoods. 2020 Decennial census redistricting data and 2016-2020 American community survey. Boston Planning & Development Agency Research Division","author":"A Lima","year":"2022"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0324020.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1007\/s13524-019-00789-z","article-title":"Regional and Racial Inequality in Infectious Disease Mortality in U.S. Cities, 1900-1948","volume":"56","author":"JJ Feigenbaum","year":"2019","journal-title":"Demography"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0324020.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1797","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268817000802","article-title":"Racial inequality in the annual risk of Tuberculosis infection in the United States, 1910-1933","volume":"145","author":"JL Zelner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref044","volume-title":"Infectious Fear: Politics, Disease, and the Health Effects of Segregation","author":"SK Roberts","year":"2009"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0324020.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2011.03.009","article-title":"A neighborhood wealth metric for use in health studies","volume":"41","author":"AV Moudon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am J Prev Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0324020.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1353\/pcg.2021.0007","article-title":"Institutionalized Racism: Redlined Districts Then and Now in Boston, Detroit, and Los Angeles","volume":"83","author":"M Stermon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Yearbook of the Association of Pacific Coast Geographers"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2020.113290","article-title":"Rising home values and Covid-19 case rates in Massachusetts","volume":"265","author":"MC Arcaya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref048","author":"S Dooling","year":"30"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref049","author":"JO Hortion"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0324020.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1177\/2329496518780921","article-title":"The Racial Position of European Immigrants 1883\u20131941: Evidence from Lynching in the Midwest","volume":"5","author":"D Rigby","year":"2018","journal-title":"Social Currents"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref051","volume-title":"Boston renaissance, the: race, space, and economic change in an American metropolis","author":"B Bluestone","year":"2000"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref052","author":"N McArdle","year":"2003"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2022.307162","article-title":"Historic Redlining Practices and Contemporary Determinants of Health in the Detroit Metropolitan Area","volume":"113","author":"R Mehdipanah","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref054","author":"R Gioielli","year":"3"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epidem.2023.100679","article-title":"Accounting for historical injustices in mathematical models of infectious disease transmission: An analytic overview","volume":"43","author":"NN Abuelezam","year":"2023","journal-title":"Epidemics"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref056"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0324020.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1177\/00333549211002837","article-title":"Neighborhood Disadvantage Measures and COVID-19 Cases in Boston, 2020","volume":"136","author":"ME Samuels-Kalow","year":"2021","journal-title":"Public Health Rep"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref058"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref059","article-title":"Social Determinants and Indicators of COVID-19 Among Marginalized Communities: A Scientific Review and Call to Action for Pandemic Response and Recovery","volume":"17","author":"WS Brakefield","year":"2022","journal-title":"Disaster Med Public Health Prep"},{"key":"pone.0324020.ref060","volume-title":"Student Housing Trends 2018-2019 Academic Year"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0324020","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T17:21:33Z","timestamp":1750267293000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0324020"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Weijun","family":"Yu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0324020","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]]}}}