{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T17:25:32Z","timestamp":1790011532838,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]],"date-time":"2025-07-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753315200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100022543","name":"Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["GOK-PC Target C82 39-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GOK-PC Target C82 39-1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100022543","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Sponges have been reported as a rich source of bioactive compounds, which could potentially be developed into lead compounds for pharmaceutical use. The present study aimed to identify sponges and assess the biological activity of their extracts against human disease-causing organisms, including\n                    <jats:italic>Escherichia coli<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus,<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>Candida albicans<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Morphological characterization and DNA barcoding of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene characterized three sponge species (\n                    <jats:italic>Biemna fistulosa<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>Callyspongia diffusa<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>Haliclona fascigera<\/jats:italic>\n                    ). The Kirby-Bauer test assessed the antimicrobial activity of the extracts, and the inhibition zone diameters (IZD) were measured. The extracts were further subjected to minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) tests to determine the antibiotic susceptibility. The Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to identify and quantify the organic compounds in the sponges\u2019 extracts. The methanolic extract of\n                    <jats:italic>B. fistulosa<\/jats:italic>\n                    (28.00\u2009\u00b1\u20093.5\u2009mm) and\n                    <jats:italic>H. fascigera<\/jats:italic>\n                    . (28.33\u2009\u00b1\u20093.8\u2009mm) exhibited a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity against\n                    <jats:italic>E. coli,<\/jats:italic>\n                    surpassing the positive control (27.67\u2009\u00b1\u20090.9\u2009mm). The inhibitory activity of ethyl acetate extract of the\n                    <jats:italic>C. diffusa<\/jats:italic>\n                    (29.33\u2009\u00b1\u20092.4\u2009mm) against\n                    <jats:italic>P. aeruginosa<\/jats:italic>\n                    was observed to be higher compared to the standard antibiotic streptomycin (26.67\u2009\u00b1\u20090.7\u2009mm). The methanolic extract of\n                    <jats:italic>H. fascigera<\/jats:italic>\n                    demonstrated the lowest MIC (0.53\u2009\u00b1\u20090.0\u2009mg mL\n                    <jats:sup>-1)<\/jats:sup>\n                    compared to the streptomycin drug (1.36\u2009\u00b1\u20090.0\u2009mg mL\n                    <jats:sup>-1)<\/jats:sup>\n                    , and showed an MBC of 1.25\u2009mg mL\n                    <jats:sup>-1<\/jats:sup>\n                    against\n                    <jats:italic>E. coli<\/jats:italic>\n                    . The GC-MS chromatogram data analysis identified 114 distinct compounds categorized into 39 classes across three sponge extracts: 11.4% of these compounds demonstrated documented antimicrobial activity against human pathogens. This study corroborates sponges as a promising source of bioactive compounds, which are valuable leads for drug discovery and development. Future research must explore their mechanisms, molecular-level toxicity, and lead optimization to enhance drug development.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0325642","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]],"date-time":"2025-07-24T17:34:32Z","timestamp":1753378472000},"page":"e0325642","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Characterization and bioactivity potential of marine sponges (Biemna fistulosa, Callyspongia diffusa, and Haliclona fascigera) from Kenyan coastal waters"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-7988-1811","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Teresia Nyambura","family":"Wacira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0163-9303","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Huxley Mae","family":"Makonde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph Nyingi","family":"Kamau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9590-9652","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Christopher Mulanda","family":"Aura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cromwell Mwiti","family":"Kibiti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,24]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0325642.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1186\/s12915-022-01291-6","article-title":"Symbiont transmission in marine sponges: reproduction, development, and metamorphosis","volume":"20","author":"TJ Carrier","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMC 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