{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T05:55:20Z","timestamp":1789797320986,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,11]],"date-time":"2025-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754870400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000269","name":"Economic and Social Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1196158"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1196158"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Literacy levels are highly variable within the deaf population and, compared to the general population, on average, reading levels are lower. As speech-based phonological coding is a known predictor of reading success in hearing individuals, much research has focussed on deaf readers\u2019 processing of speech-based phonological codes during word recognition and reading as a possible explanation for the widespread reading difficulties in the deaf population. Although results are mixed, there is recent growing evidence that deaf and hearing readers process speech-based phonological codes differently. Furthermore, some studies indicate that phonological ability may not be a strong correlate of literacy skills in deaf, adult readers. Here, we investigate orthographic, semantic, and phonological processing during single word reading in deaf (N\u2009=\u200920) and hearing (N\u2009=\u200920) adult readers, who were matched on reading level. Specifically, we tracked deaf and hearing readers\u2019 eye-movements using an adaptation of the visual world paradigm using written words and pictures. We found that deaf and hearing readers activate orthographic and semantic information following a similar time-course. However, there were differences in the way the groups processed phonology, with deaf readers making less use of phonological information. Crucially, as both groups were matched for reading level, reduced phonological processing did not appear to impact reading skill in deaf readers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0327142","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,11]],"date-time":"2025-08-11T17:21:49Z","timestamp":1754932909000},"page":"e0327142","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Reading with deaf eyes: Automatic activation of speech-based phonology during word recognition is task dependent"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4261-9288","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Katherine","family":"Rowley","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eva","family":"Gutierrez-Sigut","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mair\u00e9ad","family":"MacSweeney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabriella","family":"Vigliocco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,11]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0327142.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5202","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-84490-5","article-title":"Reading without phonology: ERP evidence from skilled deaf readers of Spanish","volume":"11","author":"B Costello","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2017.10.006","article-title":"Early use of phonological codes in deaf readers: An ERP study","volume":"106","author":"E Gutierrez-Sigut","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref003","first-page":"37","article-title":"Orthographic and phonological preview benefits: Parafoveal processing in skilled and less-skilled deaf readers","volume":"2015","author":"NN B\u00e9langer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Q J Exp Psychol (Hove)"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref004","author":"C Chamberlain","year":"2002"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0327142.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1080\/10888438.2011.568555","article-title":"Reading difficulties in adult deaf readers of French: phonological codes, not guilty!","volume":"16","author":"NN B\u00e9langer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Scientific Studies of Reading"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref006","author":"E Ormel","year":"2008"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref007","volume-title":"The deaf schoolchild: language and cognitive function","author":"R Conrad","year":"1979"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0327142.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/enw101","article-title":"Concurrent and longitudinal predictors of reading for deaf and hearing children in primary school","volume":"22","author":"M Harris","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Deaf Stud Deaf Educ"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref009","first-page":"244","article-title":"The comprehension of skilled deaf readers: The roles of word recognition and other potentially critical aspects of competence.","volume-title":"Children\u2019s comprehension problems in oral and written language: A cognitive perspective","author":"Barac-Cikoja","year":"2007"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0327142.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2010.04.011","article-title":"Predictors of reading development in deaf children: a 3-year longitudinal study","volume":"107","author":"FE Kyle","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Exp Child Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref011","unstructured":"B\u00e9langer NN, Rayner K. Eye movements of deaf readers 1 running head: frequency and predictability effects in deaf readers frequency and predictability effects in eye fixations for skilled and less-skilled deaf readers."},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0327142.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797611435130","article-title":"Skilled deaf readers have an enhanced perceptual span in reading","volume":"23","author":"NN B\u00e9langer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0327142.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/lnc3.12407","article-title":"The neurocognitive basis of skilled reading in prelingually and profoundly deaf adults","volume":"15","author":"K Emmorey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lang Linguist Compass"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0327142.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/enq049","article-title":"Reading achievement in relation to phonological coding and awareness in deaf readers: a meta-analysis","volume":"16","author":"RI Mayberry","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Deaf Stud Deaf Educ"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0327142.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.108.1.204","article-title":"DRC: a dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud","volume":"108","author":"M Coltheart","year":"2001","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0327142.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1177\/074193258600700104","article-title":"Decoding, reading, and reading disability","volume":"7","author":"PB Gough","year":"1986","journal-title":"Remedial and Special Education"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1038\/s41539-017-0004-7","article-title":"Nurturing a lexical legacy: reading experience is critical for the development of word reading skill","volume":"2","author":"K Nation","year":"2017","journal-title":"NPJ Sci Learn"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0327142.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1177\/1529100618772271","article-title":"Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert","volume":"19","author":"A Castles","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychological Science in the Public Interest"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref019","first-page":"31","article-title":"How psychological science informs the teaching of reading","volume":"2","author":"K Rayner","year":"2001","journal-title":"Psychol Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0327142.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03197717","article-title":"Phonological coding in word reading: evidence from hearing and deaf readers","volume":"15","author":"VL Hanson","year":"1987","journal-title":"Mem Cognit"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0327142.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1353\/aad.2014.0032","article-title":"Is reading different for deaf individuals? Reexamining the role of phonology","volume":"159","author":"C Mayer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am Ann Deaf"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0327142.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/5.1.32","article-title":"Reading optimally builds on spoken language: implications for deaf readers","volume":"5","author":"CA Perfetti","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Deaf Stud Deaf Educ"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0327142.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2013.05.001","article-title":"Mapping the reading circuitry for skilled deaf readers: an fMRI study of semantic and phonological processing","volume":"126","author":"K Emmorey","year":"2013","journal-title":"Brain Lang"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0327142.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2007.12.047","article-title":"Phonological processing in deaf signers and the impact of age of first language acquisition","volume":"40","author":"M MacSweeney","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2017.06.015","article-title":"Phonological and orthographic coding in deaf skilled readers","volume":"168","author":"N Fari\u00f1a","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0327142.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_00373","article-title":"The neurobiology of rhyme judgment by deaf and hearing adults: an ERP study","volume":"25","author":"M Macsweeney","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Cogn Neurosci"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1928","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awp129","article-title":"Enhanced activation of the left inferior frontal gyrus in deaf and dyslexic adults during rhyming","volume":"132","author":"M MacSweeney","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2018.07.010","article-title":"Orthographic and phonological selectivity across the reading system in deaf skilled readers","volume":"117","author":"LS Glezer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0327142.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721414567527","article-title":"What eye movements reveal about deaf readers","volume":"24","author":"NN B\u00e9langer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr Dir Psychol Sci"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2021.104938","article-title":"The impact of visual cues during visual word recognition in deaf readers: An ERP study","volume":"218","author":"E Gutierrez-Sigut","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0327142.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/0749-596X(91)90039-M","article-title":"Tongue-twister effects in the silent reading of hearing and deaf college students","volume":"30","author":"VL Hanson","year":"1991","journal-title":"J Memory and Language"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0327142.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2014.03.039","article-title":"Analysis of reading strategies in deaf adults as a function of their language and meta-phonological skills","volume":"35","author":"A-B Dom\u00ednguez","year":"2014","journal-title":"Res Dev Disabil"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2016.06.007","article-title":"The neural underpinnings of reading skill in deaf adults","volume":"160","author":"K Emmorey","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain Lang"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0327142.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1093\/deafed\/enw068","article-title":"Fingerspelled and printed words are recoded into a speech-based code in short-term memory","volume":"22","author":"ZS Sehyr","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Deaf Stud Deaf Educ"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref035","unstructured":"Guti\u00e9rrez-Sigut E, Vergara-Mart\u00ednez M, Marcet A, Perea M. Automatic use of phonological codes during word recognition in deaf signers of Spanish Sign Language. In: Formal and Experimental Advances in Sign Language Theory (FEAST), 2018:1\u201315."},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0327142.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2007.02.001","article-title":"The tug of war between phonological, semantic and shape information in language-mediated visual search","volume":"57","author":"F Huettig","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Mem Lang"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0327142.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2010.11.003","article-title":"Using the visual world paradigm to study language processing: a review and critical evaluation","volume":"137","author":"F Huettig","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Psychol (Amst)"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0327142.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4812","DOI":"10.1044\/2022_JSLHR-22-00231","article-title":"The role of orthography and phonology in written word recognition: evidence from eye-tracking in the visual world 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readers","volume":"34","author":"G Meade","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lang Cogn Neurosci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0327142.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.106.3.491","article-title":"Phonology, reading acquisition, and dyslexia: insights from connectionist models","volume":"106","author":"MW Harm","year":"1999","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.111.3.662","article-title":"Computing the meanings of words in reading: Cooperative division of labor between visual and phonological processes","volume":"3","author":"MW Harm","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"pone.0327142.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2015.12.008","volume-title":"A Vision of Reading","author":"J 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