{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T22:27:33Z","timestamp":1789511253894,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,15]],"date-time":"2025-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752537600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012331","name":"VLAIO","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["HBC.2022.0720"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HBC.2022.0720"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012331","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>With the growing interest in using insects as a sustainable protein source for human and animal consumption, identifying suitable feedstuffs is crucial for their rearing. Although <jats:italic>Tenebrio molitor<\/jats:italic> larvae can valorise food industry byproducts, the presence of certain compounds may limit this potential. This study assesses the impact of theobromine, a methylxanthine found in chocolate, on the growth and mortality of <jats:italic>Tenebrio molitor<\/jats:italic> larvae. The aim was to evaluate the feasibility of rearing mealworms on byproducts and former foodstuffs from the biscuit, confectionery and chocolate industries. Larvae were fed varying concentrations of theobromine (up to 5000\u2009mg\/kg) in their diet under controlled laboratory conditions. Weight and mortality were monitored until 10% pupation was observed. Results indicated that concentrations up to 600\u2009mg\/kg of theobromine had no significant effect on overall larval growth. Concentrations up to 1600\u2009mg\/kg did not significantly affect final weight but caused weight differences during growth, and only exposure to 5000\u2009mg\/kg appeared to increase mortality. These findings suggest that exceeding a threshold of theobromine influences larval growth, and high exposure could lead to increased mortality. This study expands the potential range of byproducts, including those containing chocolate, that could be incorporated into mealworm feed formulation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0328354","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,15]],"date-time":"2025-07-15T17:24:04Z","timestamp":1752600244000},"page":"e0328354","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Influence of theobromine in feed on larval growth and survival in Tenebrio molitor"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-6728-2788","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Matthieu","family":"Bourdarias","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sofie","family":"Landschoot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mia","family":"Eeckhout","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Myriam","family":"Hesta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0328354.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2013.11.068","article-title":"Insect meal as renewable source of food for animal feeding: a review","volume":"65","author":"MJ S\u00e1nchez-Muros","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Clean Prod"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0328354.ref002","article-title":"Environmental impact of the production of mealworms as a protein source for humans - 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A comparison using two nutrient profiling models developed to combat over- and undernutrition","volume":"70","author":"CLR Payne","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur J Clin Nutr"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0328354.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2068","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10112068","article-title":"Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor larvae) as an alternative protein source for monogastric animal: a review","volume":"10","author":"J Hong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Animals"},{"key":"pone.0328354.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nfs.2020.10.001","article-title":"Evaluation of Tenebrio molitor larvae as an alternative food source","volume":"21","author":"S Costa","year":"2020","journal-title":"NFS J"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0328354.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201200735","article-title":"Nutritional composition and safety aspects of edible insects","volume":"57","author":"BA Rumpold","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol Nutr Food Res"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0328354.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1515","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12121515","article-title":"Insects in pet food industry-hope or threat?","volume":"12","author":"J K\u0119pi\u0144ska-Pacelik","year":"2022","journal-title":"Animals (Basel)"},{"key":"pone.0328354.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2014.10.114","article-title":"Review of food composition data for edible insects","volume":"193","author":"V Nowak","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Chem"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0328354.ref020","article-title":"An exploration on greenhouse gas and ammonia production by insect species suitable for animal or human consumption","volume":"5","author":"DGAB Oonincx","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0328354.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.1080\/19440049.2017.1306884","article-title":"Nutritional evaluation of former food products (ex-food) intended for pig nutrition","volume":"34","author":"C Giromini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess"},{"key":"pone.0328354.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.animal.2025.101512","article-title":"Review: Nutritional, safety, and environmental aspects of former foodstuff products in ruminant feeding","author":"M Tretola","year":"2025","journal-title":"Animal"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0328354.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1744","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367-017-1391-y","article-title":"A framework for increasing the availability of life cycle inventory data based on the role of multinational companies","volume":"23","author":"JH Miah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int J Life Cycle Assess"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0328354.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10010125","article-title":"Potentials and challenges of former food products (food leftover) as alternative feed ingredients","volume":"10","author":"A Luciano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Animals (Basel)"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0328354.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1080\/09670874.2021.1917723","article-title":"Recent advances for alkaloids as botanical pesticides for use in organic agriculture","volume":"69","author":"Y Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Pest Manag"},{"issue":"4671","key":"pone.0328354.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1126\/science.6207592","article-title":"Caffeine and related methylxanthines: possible naturally occurring pesticides","volume":"226","author":"JA Nathanson","year":"1984","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0328354.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00492219","article-title":"Effects of caffeine and various xanthines on hornets and bees","volume":"65","author":"JS Ishay","year":"1979","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology (Berl)"},{"key":"pone.0328354.ref028","unstructured":"Kobeticova K, Pet\u0159\u00edkov\u00e1 M, Nabelkova J, \u010cern\u00fd R. 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