{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T07:23:33Z","timestamp":1782545013735,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,25]],"date-time":"2025-08-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756080000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>How do patterns of socioeconomic inequality shape the risk of child fatality in urban areas? Research has shown that both intentional and unintentional child deaths are concentrated in areas of social disadvantage. Yet in densely populated cities, child fatality risk may not follow smooth spatial patterns and instead exhibit abrupt shifts across neighborhood boundaries. This study applies a dissimilarity-based Bayesian spatial conditional autoregressive (CAR) model to detect localized discontinuities in child mortality risk associated with structural inequality. Using a continuous dissimilarity function based on differences in Economic Hardship and Inequality (EHI) scores between adjacent census tracts, the model allows spatial smoothing to attenuate across sharp transitions. The model identified 413 spatial boundaries\u2014termed social frontiers\u2014where sharp structural discontinuities in EHI were associated with a 22% increase in the relative risk of child mortality, even after adjusting for racial segregation, concentrated disadvantage, residential mobility, and immigrant concentration. The significance of identifying neighborhoods characterized as social frontiers, where children may benefit from additional preventive interventions, is discussed in this context.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0330449","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,25]],"date-time":"2025-08-25T17:28:52Z","timestamp":1756142932000},"page":"e0330449","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Pushing the boundary of child well-being: A spatial examination of child mortality in transition zones of extreme economic inequality and material hardship"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4953-4148","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Gia Elise","family":"Barboza-Salerno","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-4787-6144","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sharefa","family":"Duhaney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8999-0335","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Brittany","family":"Liebhard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8238-8496","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Karla","family":"Schockley-McCarthy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0330449.ref001","unstructured":"Children are dying at the highest rate in 13 years. In: USAFacts [Internet]. 13 June 2023 [cited 8 Aug 2024]. Available: https:\/\/usafacts.org\/data-projects\/child-death"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref002","unstructured":"Infant Mortality Rate Sees First Rise in 20 Years | Blogs | CDC. 1 Nov 2023 [cited 8 Aug 2024]. Available: https:\/\/blogs.cdc.gov\/nchs\/2023\/11\/01\/7479\/\/"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref003","unstructured":"Illinois Department of Public Health. Death demographics in Illinois, 2020. Available: https:\/\/dph.illinois.gov\/content\/dam\/soi\/en\/web\/idph\/files\/death-demographics-2020.pdf"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref004","unstructured":"Illinois Department of Public Health. Death demographics in Illinois, 2021. Available: https:\/\/dph.illinois.gov\/content\/dam\/soi\/en\/web\/idph\/files\/death-demographics-2020.pdf"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref005","volume-title":"U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Cook County, Illinois"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2021.111565","article-title":"Determinants of malnutrition among children: A systematic review","volume":"96","author":"OR Katoch","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0330449.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3530","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980021001610","article-title":"The risk to child nutrition during and after COVID-19 pandemic: what to expect and how to respond","volume":"24","author":"J Ntambara","year":"2021","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0330449.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1038\/s43016-021-00319-4","article-title":"The COVID-19 crisis will exacerbate maternal and child undernutrition and child mortality in low- and middle-income countries","volume":"2","author":"S Osendarp","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Food"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0330449.ref009","article-title":"Healthcare access for children in a low-income area in Cape Town: A mixed-methods case study","volume":"65","author":"LB Profitt","year":"2023","journal-title":"S Afr Fam Pract (2004)"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0330449.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.37689","article-title":"Prioritizing Health Care Strategies to Reduce Childhood Mortality","volume":"5","author":"ZJ Madewell","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0330449.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0237640","article-title":"Risk factors of child mortality in Ethiopia: Application of multilevel two-part model","volume":"15","author":"SM Fenta","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/b106524_6","article-title":"The Environment and Maternal and Child Health","author":"MA Pass","year":"2009","journal-title":"Maternal and Child Health. Springer US"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref013","unstructured":"Solomon TGA, Cordova FM, Garcia F. What\u2019s killing our children? Child and infant mortality among American Indians and Alaska Natives. NAM Perspect. 2017 [cited 2 Dec 2024]. Available: https:\/\/nam.edu\/whats-killing-our-children-child-and-infant-mortality-among-american-indians-and-alaska-natives\/\/"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref014","author":"D Ely","year":"2023"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0330449.ref015","first-page":"125","article-title":"Contested Boundaries: Explaining Where Ethnoracial Diversity Provokes Neighborhood Conflict","volume":"122","author":"J Legewie","year":"2016","journal-title":"AJS"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0330449.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2003.09.032","article-title":"Material deprivation and self-rated health: a multilevel study of adolescents from 22 European and North American countries","volume":"59","author":"T Torsheim","year":"2004","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0330449.ref017","article-title":"Determinants of performance of health systems concerning maternal and child health: a global approach","volume":"10","author":"CE Pinz\u00f3n-Fl\u00f3rez","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2020.10.027","article-title":"Structural racism, socio-economic marginalization, and infant mortality","volume":"190","author":"J Bishop-Royse","year":"2021","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref019","article-title":"Socio-economic inequities in children\u2019s injury rates: has the gradient changed over time?","volume":"101","author":"MD Brownell","year":"2010","journal-title":"Can J Public Health Rev Can Santee Publique"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-64569-4","volume-title":"Urban socio-economic segregation and income inequality: a global perspective","author":"M Van Ham","year":"2021"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0330449.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-054030","article-title":"Quantifying within-city inequalities in child mortality across neighbourhoods in Accra, Ghana: a Bayesian spatial analysis","volume":"12","author":"H Bixby","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref022","unstructured":"Shaw C, Blakely T, Crampton P, Atkinson J. The contribution of causes of death to socioeconomic inequalities in child mortality: New Zealand 1981-1999. N Z Med J Online. 2005;118. Available: https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=5e0a62d8de858756331781cd840a9577a09cbed9"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0330449.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-018-1119-1","article-title":"The impact of neighborhood socioeconomic disparities on injury","volume":"63","author":"S Goldman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int J Public Health"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0330449.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1658","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2006.087320","article-title":"Widening socioeconomic disparities in US childhood mortality, 1969 2000","volume":"97","author":"GK Singh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0330449.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1093\/pch\/9.5.323","article-title":"Socioeconomic status and injury risk in children","volume":"9","author":"CS Birken","year":"2004","journal-title":"Paediatr Child Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0330449.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-023-15999-9","article-title":"Sociodemographic inequalities in mortality from drowning in the Baltic countries and Finland in 2000-2015: a register-based study","volume":"23","author":"A Stickley","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0330449.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.2003.011551","article-title":"Sudden unexpected death in infancy and socioeconomic status: a systematic review","volume":"58","author":"N Spencer","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Epidemiol Community Health"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2023.106501","article-title":"The neighborhood deprivation gradient and child physical abuse and neglect: A Bayesian spatial model","volume":"146","author":"GE Barboza-Salerno","year":"2023","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0330449.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.82.5.349","article-title":"Socioeconomic inequalities in risk of congenital anomaly","volume":"82","author":"M Vrijheid","year":"2000","journal-title":"Arch Dis Child"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1136\/jech-2018-210916","article-title":"Association of community-level inequities and premature mortality: Chicago, 2011\u20132015","volume":"72","author":"BS Lange-Maia","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Epidemiol Community Health"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref031","unstructured":"Andreoli F, Peluso E. So close yet so unequal: Reconsidering spatial inequality in US cities. Working Paper; 2017. Available: https:\/\/www.econstor.eu\/handle\/10419\/170652"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0330449.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1177\/0042098018798759","article-title":"The analysis of residential sorting trends: Measuring disparities in socio-spatial mobility","volume":"56","author":"T Modai-Snir","year":"2019","journal-title":"Urban Stud"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0330449.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.1080\/07352166.2020.1808006","article-title":"Between social isolation and opportunity-enriching environments: Assessing neighborhood effects on the socioeconomic integration of the populations of three shanty towns in Salvador, Brazil","volume":"44","author":"S Treuke","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Urban Affairs"},{"issue":"14","key":"pone.0330449.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2977","DOI":"10.1177\/0042098012453857","article-title":"Critical Commentary. Making the Connection between the Socialisation and the Social Isolation of the Inner-city Poor","volume":"49","author":"JM Quane","year":"2012","journal-title":"Urban Studies"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0330449.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1111\/tesg.12316","article-title":"Frontiers in Residential Segregation: Understanding Neighbourhood Boundaries and Their Impacts","volume":"110","author":"N Dean","year":"2018","journal-title":"Tijd voor Econ & Soc Geog"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00011456","article-title":"From fields to objects: a review of geographic boundary analysis","volume":"2","author":"GM Jacquez","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Geogr Syst"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0330449.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sste.2010.09.003","article-title":"Geographic boundary analysis in spatial and spatio-temporal epidemiology: perspective and prospects","volume":"1","author":"GM Jacquez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Spat Spatiotemporal Epidemiol"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref038","author":"E Roberto","year":"2017"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0330449.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1177\/0081175018796871","article-title":"The Spatial Proximity and Connectivity Method for Measuring and Analyzing Residential Segregation","volume":"48","author":"E Roberto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sociological Methodology"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref040","unstructured":"Roberto E. The Other Side of the Tracks: Measuring the Impact of Spatial Boundaries on Residential Segregation. PAA 2017 Annual Meeting. PAA; 2017. Available: https:\/\/paa.confex.com\/paa\/2017\/mediafile\/ExtendedAbstract\/Paper15182\/Roberto_OtherSideOfTheTracks_April2017_rs.pdf"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0330449.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1007\/s40980-021-00086-7","article-title":"The Spatial Structure and Local Experience of Residential Segregation","volume":"9","author":"E Roberto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Spat Demogr"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0330449.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1016\/0094-1190(76)90036-X","article-title":"A note on the length of the black-white border","volume":"3","author":"J Yinger","year":"1976","journal-title":"Journal of Urban Economics"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0330449.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1080\/0022250X.1971.9989794","article-title":"Dynamic models of segregation\u2020","volume":"1","author":"TC Schelling","year":"1971","journal-title":"The Journal of Mathematical Sociology"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0330449.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s12552-014-9134-1","article-title":"The Racial Achievement Gap, Segregated Schools, and Segregated Neighborhoods: A Constitutional Insult","volume":"7","author":"R Rothstein","year":"2014","journal-title":"Race Soc Probl"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0330449.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.7758\/rsf.2017.3.2.04","article-title":"Defensible Spaces in Philadelphia: Exploring Neighborhood Boundaries Through Spatial Analysis","volume":"3","author":"Kramer Rory","year":"2017","journal-title":"RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref046","first-page":"231","article-title":"Defining neighborhoods for research and policy","volume":"14","author":"C Coulton","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cityscape"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0330449.ref047","first-page":"30","article-title":"Inequality of child mortality among ethnic groups in sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"78","author":"M Brockerhoff","year":"2000","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2016.09.011","article-title":"The interplay of race, socioeconomic status and neighborhood residence upon birth outcomes in a high black infant mortality community","volume":"2","author":"CL Kothari","year":"2016","journal-title":"SSM Popul Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0330449.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1957","DOI":"10.1007\/s13524-018-0708-1","article-title":"Living on the Edge: Neighborhood Boundaries and the Spatial Dynamics of Violent Crime","volume":"55","author":"J Legewie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Demography"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0330449.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1177\/0011128716687756","article-title":"Physical Boundaries and City Boundaries: Consequences for Crime Patterns on Street Segments?","volume":"64","author":"Y-A Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crime & Delinquency"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0330449.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1080\/15230406.2015.1089188","article-title":"Crime on the edges: patterns of crime and land use change","volume":"44","author":"J Song","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cartography and Geographic Information Science"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2021.03.049","article-title":"Racial and Economic Neighborhood Segregation, Site of Delivery, and Morbidity and Mortality in Neonates Born Very Preterm","volume":"235","author":"T Janevic","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Pediatr"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref053","article-title":"The places of death: A multilevel analysis of 13,247 couples in Dublin during the demographic transition","author":"D Connor","year":"2015","journal-title":"UCLA CCPR Popul Work Pap"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0330449.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1080\/00224545.1966.9712393","article-title":"Cultural differences in children\u2019s color and form preferences","volume":"70","author":"RG Suchman","year":"1966","journal-title":"J Soc Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0330449.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.2307\/2136352","article-title":"Social networks, health beliefs, and preventive health behavior","volume":"18","author":"JK Langlie","year":"1977","journal-title":"J Health Soc Behav"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0330449.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.3138\/jcfs.4.1.131","article-title":"A Comparison of Family Networks and Friend Networks In Health Care Utilization","volume":"4","author":"JC Salloway","year":"1973","journal-title":"Journal of Comparative Family Studies"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0330449.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1909","DOI":"10.1080\/00220388.2018.1502876","article-title":"Neighbourhood Ethnic Diversity, Child Health Outcomes and Women\u2019s Empowerment","volume":"55","author":"Y Dinku","year":"2018","journal-title":"The Journal of Development Studies"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref058","volume-title":"The nature of prejudice","year":"1954"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0330449.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1177\/000271627944100109","article-title":"Racial Change and Social Policy","volume":"441","author":"TF Pettigrew","year":"1979","journal-title":"The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref060","first-page":"1","article-title":"Rural-urban migration and its effects on infant and child mortality in Ghana","volume":"18","author":"AA Amankwaa","year":"2003","journal-title":"Afr Popul Stud"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0330449.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1086\/379217","article-title":"Counterfactual Models of Neighborhood Effects: The Effect of Neighborhood Poverty on Dropping Out and Teenage Pregnancy","volume":"109","author":"DJ Harding","year":"2003","journal-title":"American Journal of Sociology"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref062","unstructured":"Ma H. Bayesian hierarchical boundary analysis for areal public health data. Ph.D., University of Minnesota. 2006. Available: https:\/\/www.proquest.com\/docview\/305304675\/abstract\/D8CA4251655E46E6PQ\/1"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref063","unstructured":"Cook County Government Open Data. Cook County Medical Examiner Case Archive. https:\/\/datacatalog.cookcountyil. gov\/Public-Safety\/Medical-Examiner-Case-Archive\/cjeq-bs86; 2024."},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.93.7.1137","article-title":"Area deprivation and widening inequalities in US mortality, 1969\u20131998","volume":"93","author":"GK Singh","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref065","unstructured":"U.S. Census Bureau. Available: https:\/\/www.census.gov\/quickfacts\/newtowntownwesternconnecticutplanningregionconnecticut"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref066","volume-title":"SpatialEpi: Methods and data for spatial epidemiology","author":"AY Kim","year":"2023"},{"issue":"26","key":"pone.0330449.ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2456","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1802313","article-title":"Making Neighborhood-Disadvantage Metrics Accessible - The Neighborhood Atlas","volume":"378","author":"AJH Kind","year":"2018","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0330449.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1177\/1077559519850340","article-title":"Examining Spatial Regimes of Child Maltreatment Allegations in a Social Vulnerability Framework","volume":"25","author":"GE Barboza-Salerno","year":"2020","journal-title":"Child Maltreat"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0330449.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1016\/j.childyouth.2004.02.022","article-title":"A spatial analysis of social disorganization, alcohol access, and rates of child maltreatment in neighborhoods","volume":"26","author":"B Freisthler","year":"2004","journal-title":"Children and Youth Services Review"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0330449.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1016\/S0277-9536(98)00400-6","article-title":"Crime: social disorganization and relative deprivation","volume":"48","author":"I Kawachi","year":"1999","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref071","unstructured":"Lee D. CARBayes version 6.1. 1: An R Package for Spatial Areal Unit Modelling with Conditional Autoregressive Priors. CARBayes Version 51 2 R Package Spat Areal Unit Model Cond Autoregressive Priors. 2016 [cited 27 Apr 2024]. Available: https:\/\/cran.irsn.fr\/web\/packages\/CARBayes\/vignettes\/CARBayes.pdf"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0330449.ref072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1093\/biostatistics\/kxr036","article-title":"Boundary detection in disease mapping studies","volume":"13","author":"D Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biostatistics"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref073","unstructured":"Heim K. Visualization and Modeling for Crime Data Indexed by Road Segments. Ph.D., George Mason University. 2014. Available: https:\/\/www.proquest.com\/docview\/1618952639\/abstract\/6105476ADAFE400BPQ\/1"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0330449.ref074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.35566\/jbds\/v2n2\/p3","article-title":"The Performances of Gelman-Rubin and Geweke\u2019s Convergence Diagnostics of Monte Carlo Markov Chains in Bayesian Analysis","volume":"2","author":"H Du","year":"2022","journal-title":"JBDS"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gamerman D, Lopes HF. Markov chain Monte Carlo: stochastic simulation for Bayesian inference. Chapman and Hall\/CRC; 2006. Available: https:\/\/www.taylorfrancis.com\/books\/mono\/10.1201\/9781482296426\/markov-chain-monte-carlo-dani-gamerman-hedibert-lopes","DOI":"10.1201\/9781482296426"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0330449.ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1068\/a270985","article-title":"The Exact Distribution of Moran\u2019s I","volume":"27","author":"M Tiefelsdorf","year":"1995","journal-title":"Environ Plan A"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref077","unstructured":"Cliff AD, Ord JK. Spatial processes: models & applications. No Title. 1981 [cited 11 May 2025]. Available: https:\/\/cir.nii.ac.jp\/crid\/1130282271456511104"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref078","unstructured":"Arribas-Bel D, Wolf LJ, Fiorentino S. Geographic data science with python. Self-published; 2023. Available: https:\/\/geographicdata.science\/book\/notebooks\/04_spatial_weights.html"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195152708.003.0007","article-title":"Spatial Analyses of Homicide with Areal Data","author":"SF Messner","year":"2004","journal-title":"Spatially Integrated Social Science. Oxford University PressNew York, NY"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref080","unstructured":"Evans M. The Color Of Wealth In Chicago: Study Reveals Wide Gap In Black, Latino And White Families\u2019 Assets. In: Block Club Chicago [Internet]. 18 June 2024 [cited 15 May 2025]. Available: https:\/\/blockclubchicago.org\/2024\/06\/18\/the-color-of-wealth-in-chicago-study-reveals-wide-gap-in-black-latino-and-white-families-assets\/\/"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0330449.ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1186\/s40621-025-00579-9","article-title":"Redlining, reinvestment, and racial segregation: a bayesian spatial analysis of mortgage lending trajectories and firearm-related violence","volume":"12","author":"G Barboza-Salerno","year":"2025","journal-title":"Inj Epidemiol"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref082","volume-title":"Racial\/Ethnic Disparities in Preterm Birth in an Intergenerational Cohort of Mothers and Babies in California: The Role of Neighborhood Disinvestment","author":"BP Shrimali","year":"2017"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ergler CR, Kearns RA, Witten K. Children\u2019s health and wellbeing in urban environments. Routledge London; 2017. Available: https:\/\/api.taylorfrancis.com\/content\/books\/mono\/download?identifierName=doi&identifierValue=10.4324\/9781315571560&type=googlepdf","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315571560"},{"issue":"7965","key":"pone.0330449.ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-023-06116-2","article-title":"The effects of cash transfers on adult and child mortality in low- and middle-income countries","volume":"618","author":"A Richterman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref085","first-page":"4","volume-title":"Measuring the impact of social cash transfers on poverty and inequality in Namibia. Conference on\u201cpolicies for reducing inequality in the developing world. Citeseer","author":"S Levine","year":"2009"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0330449.ref086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1859","DOI":"10.1177\/0042098017702840","article-title":"Spatially integrated and socially segregated: The effects of mixed-income neighbourhoods on social well-being","volume":"55","author":"A Thurber","year":"2017","journal-title":"Urban Studies"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref087","unstructured":"Pettit KL, Kingsley GT, Hendey L. Making a difference with data: NNIP and federal place-based initiatives. Wash DC Urban Inst Natl Neighborhood Indic Partnersh Httpwww Urban Orgresearchpublicationmaking-Differ-Data-Nnip--Fed-Placebased-Initiat. 2015 [cited 25 Sept 2024]. Available: https:\/\/www.urban.org\/sites\/default\/files\/alfresco\/publication-pdfs\/2000543-Making-a-Difference-with-Data-NNIP-and-Federal-Place-Based-Initiatives.pdf"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref088","volume-title":"Dudley street neighborhood initiative narrative. Roxbury, MA: Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative","author":"Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative","year":"2010"},{"key":"pone.0330449.ref089","unstructured":"Jennings J, Barboza G. Public health and spatial inequality: Asthma disparities in roxbury and dorchester. Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative; 2011. Available: https:\/\/static1.squarespace.com\/static\/5515d04fe4b0263cc20b3984\/t\/555ceac3e4b03c164e6db490\/1432152771805\/DSNI+Public+Health+and+Spatial+Inequality-Asthma+2011+Jennings+and+Barboza.pdf"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0330449.ref090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2009.01.004","article-title":"Association between neighbourhood socioeconomic characteristics and high-risk injection behaviour amongst injection drug users living in inner and other city areas in Montr\u00e9al, Canada","volume":"21","author":"M G\u00e9n\u00e9reux","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int J Drug Policy"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0330449","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,25]],"date-time":"2025-08-25T17:29:05Z","timestamp":1756142945000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0330449"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Jennifer","family":"Yourkavitch","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,25]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,25]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0330449","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,25]]}}}