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Malaria control is also challenged by undetected asymptomatic <jats:italic><jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> malaria resulting in an undetectable reservoir for potential transmission. Context-specific surveillance of asymptomatic <jats:italic><jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> and non-falciparum species is needed to properly inform malaria control programs.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec002\">\n<jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>We performed quantitative real time PCR for four malaria species in 5,050 primarily adult individuals in Rwanda using the 2014\u20132015 Demographic Health Survey. We assessed correlates of infection by species to explore attributes associated with each species. Asymptomatic <jats:italic><jats:italic>P. ovale spp.<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic><jats:italic>P. malariae, and P. falciparum<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> malaria infection had broad spatial distribution across Rwanda. <jats:italic><jats:italic>P. vivax<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> infection was rare.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec003\">\n<jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Overall infection prevalence was 22.3% (95%CI [20.3, 24.3]), with <jats:italic><jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> and non-falciparum at 16.3% [14.5, 18.1] and 8.0% [6.6, 9.3], respectively. Parasitemias tended to be low and mixed species infections were common, especially where malaria transmission and overall prevalence was the highest. <jats:italic><jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> infection was associated with lower wealth, rural residence and low elevation. Fewer factors were significantly associated with non-falciparum malaria.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sec004\">\n<jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Asymptomatic non-falciparum malaria and <jats:italic><jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> malaria are common and widely distributed across Rwanda in adults. Continued molecular monitoring, preferably done by the national malaria control program, of <jats:italic><jats:italic>Plasmodium<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> diversity using routine survey samples is needed to strengthen malaria control.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0330480","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,11]],"date-time":"2025-09-11T17:29:33Z","timestamp":1757611773000},"page":"e0330480","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Prevalence of asymptomatic non-falciparum and falciparum malaria in the 2014-15 Rwanda Demographic Health Survey"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Claudia","family":"Gaither","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Camille","family":"Morgan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rebecca","family":"Kirby","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Corine","family":"Karema","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pierre","family":"Gashema","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jenna","family":"Zuromski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Samuel J.","family":"White","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7824-9605","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Hillary M.","family":"Topazian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Giesbrecht","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kyaw","family":"Thwai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Neeva Wernsman","family":"Young","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Varun","family":"Goel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Koby","family":"Boyter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tharcisse","family":"Munyaneza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Claude Mambo","family":"Muvunyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jean De Dieu","family":"Butera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jeffrey A.","family":"Bailey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jean-Baptiste","family":"Mazarati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0591-0850","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jonathan J.","family":"Juliano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0330480.ref001","unstructured":"World malaria report; 2024 [cited 2025 Mar 31]. 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