{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T19:57:46Z","timestamp":1779911866746,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":108,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760486400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rat bite fever (RBF) is a zoonotic disease caused primarily by <jats:italic><jats:italic>Streptobacillus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> (<jats:italic><jats:italic>S<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic>.) <jats:italic><jats:italic>moniliformis<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic>. Norway or brown rats (<jats:italic><jats:italic>Rattus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> [<jats:italic><jats:italic>R.<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic>] <jats:italic><jats:italic>norvegicus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic>) are the natural host for <jats:italic><jats:italic>S. moniliformis<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> and carry the bacterium in the nasopharynx without clinical disease. Transmission to humans often occurs through rat bites or scratches, but also through contact with the excreta of infected rats. Although human infections with <jats:italic><jats:italic>S. moniliformis<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> occur worldwide, they are rarely diagnosed. For decades, <jats:italic><jats:italic>S. moniliformis<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> was the only known member of the genus <jats:italic><jats:italic>Streptobacillus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic>. In recent years, however, four additional species were identified, two of which being zoonotic pathogens capable of causing symptoms identical to RBF in humans. The aim of this study was to develop a serological assay covering all known <jats:italic><jats:italic>Streptobacillus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> species. A bead-based multiplex fluorescence immunoassay for <jats:italic><jats:italic>S. moniliformis<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> detection has been used for years in routine diagnostics of laboratory rodents. Here, this assay was adapted to enable the detection of antibodies against all currently known <jats:italic><jats:italic>Streptobacillus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> species and tested with sera from experimentally inoculated mice and rats, and with negative sera from laboratory rodents. Using this assay, we broadly examined the prevalence of <jats:italic><jats:italic>Streptobacillus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> spp. reactive antibodies in wild rodents. Transudates from a total of 107 Norway rats, 81 black or roof rats (<jats:italic><jats:italic>Rattus rattus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic>) and 110 house mice (<jats:italic><jats:italic>Mus musculus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic>) from different husbandries and wildlife populations within Germany were tested. Antibody prevalences of 41% in <jats:italic><jats:italic>R. norvegicus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> and 83% in <jats:italic><jats:italic>R. rattus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> suggest that <jats:italic><jats:italic>Streptobacillus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> spp. are widespread in wild and captive rats in Germany, whereas wild mice seem to be free of infection. Due to its high throughput capacity and multiplex format, the <jats:italic><jats:italic>Streptobacillus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> multiplex serology is well suited for large seroprevalence studies in rodents and has the potential, after adaptation, for use in humans, thereby allowing for the assessment of <jats:italic><jats:italic>Streptobacillus<\/jats:italic><\/jats:italic> infection risk and risk of RBF.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0333888","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T17:29:51Z","timestamp":1760549391000},"page":"e0333888","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Multiplex serology for Streptobacillus moniliformis and other \u2018rat bite fever-like\u2019 microorganisms for seroprevalence studies in rodents"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4828-7974","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Katja","family":"Schmidt","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julia","family":"Butt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ulrich","family":"Matt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Klaus","family":"Vogel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1885-7673","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Calvin","family":"Mehl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rainer G.","family":"Ulrich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tobias","family":"Eisenberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]]},"reference":[{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0333888.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1080\/21505594.2016.1177694","article-title":"Approved and novel strategies in diagnostics of rat bite fever and other Streptobacillus infections in humans and animals","volume":"7","author":"T Eisenberg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0333888.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00016-06","article-title":"Rat bite fever and Streptobacillus moniliformis","volume":"20","author":"SP Elliott","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"key":"pone.0333888.ref003","first-page":"1188","article-title":"Sur le role etiologique de Streptobacillus moniliformis (nov. spec.) dans l\u2019erytheme polymorphe aigu septicemique","volume":"180","author":"C Levaditi","year":"1925","journal-title":"C R Acad Sci"},{"key":"pone.0333888.ref004","first-page":"245","article-title":"Violent symptoms from bite of rat","volume":"26","author":"W Wilcox","year":"1839","journal-title":"Am J Med Sci"},{"key":"pone.0333888.ref005","first-page":"77","article-title":"Zur Atiologie und Klinik der Bisskrankheit (Ratten-, Katzen-, Eichhornchen-Bisskrankheit)","volume":"58","author":"H Schottm\u00fcller","year":"1914","journal-title":"Dermatol Wschr Erg\u00e4nzungsheft"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0333888.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2008.09.079","article-title":"Rat bite fever","volume":"133","author":"W Gaastra","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet Microbiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0333888.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/S1201-9712(01)90090-6","article-title":"Rat-bite fever (Streptobacillus moniliformis): a potential emerging disease","volume":"5","author":"MH Graves","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0333888.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2304.161987","article-title":"Acute tetraplegia caused by rat bite fever in snake keeper and transmission of Streptobacillus moniliformis","volume":"23","author":"T Eisenberg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0333888.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.104.3.e35","article-title":"Identification of risk factors in rat bite incidents involving humans","volume":"104","author":"RB Hirschhorn","year":"1999","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"pone.0333888.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.1965.03870010041007","article-title":"Antimicrobial therapy of ratbite fever. 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