{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T17:28:59Z","timestamp":1788456539593,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]],"date-time":"2025-12-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765324800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["23H05472"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23H05472"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dogs are known to be catalysts for human-human relationships. However, there is insufficient quantitative research that directly compares dog owners\u2019 human-human relationships with those of non-owners. This study focused on whether dog owners are more likely to have human-human relationships and engage in social interactions within their neighborhoods. A previous model considered incidental interactions\u2014which occur spontaneously between passersby in public settings\u2014and friendships, as human-human relationships fostered by dog ownership. This study also considered anchored personal relationships, which are the types of relationships that dog owners would typically cultivate within their neighborhoods. Anchored personal relationships are relationships highly embedded within a social context and exist solely in a shared time, place, and activity. This study examined the associations between dog ownership and incidental interactions, friendships, and anchored personal relationships. We also examined the potential mediating effects of these relationships on the association between dog ownership and a sense of community. Analyzed data included 377 participants from a social survey conducted in a suburb of the Tokyo metropolitan area. We used generalized structural equation modeling to examine indirect effects. The findings revealed a positive correlation between dog ownership and having anchored personal relationships, as well as between dog ownership and having incidental interactions. However, after controlling for demographics, dog ownership did not increase the likelihood of having friends in one\u2019s neighborhood. All types of relationships were positively correlated with a stronger sense of community. However, only anchored personal relationships mediated the effect of dog ownership on sense of community. These findings support the proposition that anchored personal relationships should be considered alongside incidental interactions and friendships when studying human-human relationships fostered by dog ownership. Furthermore, exploratory analyses revealed that ownership of cats and other pets were not correlated with the relationships or a stronger sense of community.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0336957","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]],"date-time":"2025-12-10T18:21:37Z","timestamp":1765390897000},"page":"e0336957","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Dog ownership enhances anchored personal relationships and sense of community: A comparison with incidental interactions and friendships"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0396-4764","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Itaru","family":"Ishiguro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shinnosuke","family":"Kodama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hikari","family":"Koyasu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miho","family":"Nagasawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Takefumi","family":"Kikusui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]]},"reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0336957.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jveb.2010.02.002","article-title":"Companion animals and human health: Benefits, challenges, and the road ahead","volume":"5","author":"M O\u2019Haire","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Veterinary Behavior"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0336957.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCOUTCOMES.119.005554","article-title":"Dog ownership and survival: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"CK Kramer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes"},{"issue":"7527","key":"pone.0336957.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.331.7527.1252","article-title":"Pet ownership and human health: a brief review of evidence and issues","volume":"331","author":"J McNicholas","year":"2005","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2017.05.002","article-title":"Social capital and pet ownership - A tale of four cities","volume":"3","author":"L Wood","year":"2017","journal-title":"SSM Popul Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0336957.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0122085","article-title":"The pet factor--companion animals as a conduit for getting to know people, friendship formation and social support","volume":"10","author":"L Wood","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1348\/000712600161673","article-title":"Dogs as catalysts for social interactions: robustness of the effect","author":"J McNicholas","year":"2000","journal-title":"Br J Psychol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0336957.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2005.01.017","article-title":"The pet connection: pets as a conduit for social capital?","volume":"61","author":"L Wood","year":"2005","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0336957.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1163\/156853007X169333","article-title":"More Than a Furry Companion: The Ripple Effect of Companion Animals on Neighborhood Interactions and Sense of Community","volume":"15","author":"M Bulsara","year":"2007","journal-title":"Soc Animals"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0336957.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1177\/089124189017004004","article-title":"Social life in the public realm","volume":"17","author":"LH Lofland","year":"1989","journal-title":"J Contemporary Ethnography"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref010","first-page":"1","article-title":"The study of personal relationships in public places.","volume-title":"Together alone: Personal relationships in public spaces","author":"C Morrill","year":"2005"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref011","volume-title":"A world of strangers: order and action in urban public space","author":"LH Lofland","year":"1973"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref012","volume-title":"The individual in a social world: Essays and experiments","author":"S. Milgram","year":"1992","edition":"2"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref013","volume-title":"To dwell among friends: Personal networks in town and city","author":"CS Fischer","year":"1982"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0336957.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/089124191020001001","article-title":"Dogs and their people","volume":"20","author":"DM Robins","year":"1991","journal-title":"J Contemporary Ethnography"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0336957.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1080\/00224545.1993.9712145","article-title":"The role of pet dogs in casual conversations of elderly adults","volume":"133","author":"J Rogers","year":"1993","journal-title":"J Soc Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0336957.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4992\/jjpsy.77.1","article-title":"Effects of companion animals on owner\u2019s subjective well-being and social networks in Japan","volume":"77","author":"M Kaneko","year":"2006","journal-title":"Shinrigaku Kenkyu"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0336957.ref017","first-page":"21","article-title":"Personal networks of dog owners created by \u201cdog walking\u201d","volume":"12","author":"K Kikuchi","year":"2009","journal-title":"MERA Journal"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0336957.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.2307\/1961366","article-title":"The Emergence of Cooperation among Egoists","volume":"75","author":"R Axelrod","year":"1981","journal-title":"Am Polit Sci Rev"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ps.29.020178.000555","article-title":"Interpersonal attraction and relationships","volume":"29","author":"TL Huston","year":"1978","journal-title":"Annu Rev Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0336957.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.soc.27.1.415","article-title":"Birds of a Feather: Homophily in Social Networks","volume":"27","author":"M McPherson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annu Rev Sociol"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674029095","volume-title":"Structural holes: the social structure of competition","author":"RS Burt","year":"1992"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref022","volume-title":"Getting a job: A study of contacts and careers","author":"MS Granovetter","year":"1974"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0336957.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1360","DOI":"10.1086\/225469","article-title":"The Strength of Weak Ties","volume":"78","author":"MS Granovetter","year":"1973","journal-title":"American J Sociol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0336957.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-8733(86)90003-1","article-title":"Access to occupations through social ties","volume":"8","author":"N Lin","year":"1986","journal-title":"Social Networks"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0336957.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"830","DOI":"10.1093\/forestscience\/49.6.830","article-title":"The Measurement of Place Attachment: Validity and Generalizability of a Psychometric Approach","volume":"49","author":"DR Williams","year":"2003","journal-title":"Forest Science"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0336957.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.117.3.497","article-title":"The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.","volume":"117","author":"RF Baumeister","year":"1995","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0336957.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1177\/1948550613502990","article-title":"Is Efficiency Overrated?","volume":"5","author":"GM Sandstrom","year":"2013","journal-title":"Social Psychological and Personality Science"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0336957.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11205-013-0347-2","article-title":"Sense of Community and Community Participation: A Meta-Analytic Review","volume":"117","author":"C Tal\u00f2","year":"2013","journal-title":"Soc Indic Res"},{"issue":"750","key":"pone.0336957.ref029","first-page":"1477","article-title":"Study on effectiveness of dog-owners as \u201cthe eyes in the community\u201d","volume":"83","author":"M Serizawa","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Architecture and Planning (Transactions of AIJ)"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socnet.2017.09.005","article-title":"Changes in core network size in Japan: Comparisons between the 1990s and 2010s","volume":"52","author":"I Ishiguro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Social Networks"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0336957.ref031","first-page":"100713","article-title":"Minimal social interactions and subjective well-being in the Japanese context: Examination of mediation processes using a national representative sample","volume":"8","author":"I Ishiguro","year":"2023","journal-title":"Social Sci Humanities Open"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0336957.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2452","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph7062452","article-title":"Living with companion animals, physical activity and mortality in a U.S. national cohort","volume":"7","author":"RF Gillum","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2304","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.02304","article-title":"Associations between pet ownership and attitudes toward pets with youth socioemotional outcomes","volume":"9","author":"KC Jacobson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0336957.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1428","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-019-7770-5","article-title":"Companion dog acquisition and mental well-being: A community-based three-arm controlled study","volume":"19","author":"L Powell","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMC public health"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0336957.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1080\/08927936.2017.1335103","article-title":"A propensity-score-weighted population-based study of the health benefits of dogs and cats for children","volume":"30","author":"JNV Miles","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anthrozo\u00f6s"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0336957.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.3390\/populations1020008","article-title":"All in the Family: Pets and Family Structure","volume":"1","author":"LE Lawton","year":"2025","journal-title":"Populations (Basel)"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0336957.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0305546","article-title":"Dog, cat, bird, fish, and other pet ownership and mortality: Evidence from the HILDA cohort","volume":"19","author":"Y Taniguchi","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0336957.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1935","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-022-02332-9","article-title":"Pet ownership, loneliness, and social isolation: a systematic review","volume":"57","author":"B Kretzler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0336957.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14030441","article-title":"The link between the nature of the human-companion animal relationship and well-being outcomes in companion animal owners","volume":"14","author":"A Ellis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Animals (Basel)"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0336957.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1080\/08927936.2023.2287314","article-title":"\u201cIt\u2019s Okay He\u2019s Friendly\u201d: Understanding the Experience of Owning and Walking a Reactive Dog Using a Qualitative Online Survey","volume":"37","author":"CJ Hart","year":"2023","journal-title":"Anthrozo\u00f6s"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jveb.2020.04.003","article-title":"Living with and loving a pet with behavioral problems: Pet owners\u2019 experiences","volume":"37","author":"K Buller","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Veterinary Behavior"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref042","first-page":"139","article-title":"A five-factor theory of personality.","volume-title":"The five-factor model of personality: theoretical perspectives","author":"P Costa","year":"1999","edition":"2"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socnet.2015.10.004","article-title":"Extroversion and neuroticism affect the right side of the distribution of network size","volume":"44","author":"I Ishiguro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Social Networks"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0336957.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1027\/1614-0001\/a000048","article-title":"Extraverts Have Larger Social Network Layers","volume":"32","author":"TV Pollet","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Individual Differences"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0336957.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1089\/cyber.2010.0161","article-title":"Use of social network sites and instant messaging does not lead to increased offline social network size, or to emotionally closer relationships with offline network members","volume":"14","author":"TV Pollet","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0336957.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1080\/08927936.2022.2121046","article-title":"Personality Traits of Brazilian Pet Owners and Nonowners and Their Association with Attachment to Pets","volume":"36","author":"NS de Albuquerque","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anthrozo\u00f6s"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0336957.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1037\/a0024506","article-title":"Friends with benefits: on the positive consequences of pet ownership","volume":"101","author":"AR McConnell","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref048","author":"Japan Pet Food Association","year":"2024"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0336957.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1177\/19485506231209793","article-title":"Minimal Social Interactions and Life Satisfaction: The Role of Greeting, Thanking, and Conversing","volume":"16","author":"E Ascigil","year":"2023","journal-title":"Social Psychological Personality Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0336957.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-839X.2009.01277.x","article-title":"Similarity attraction and actually selecting similar others: How cross\u2010societal differences in relational mobility affect interpersonal similarity in Japan and the USA","volume":"12","author":"J Schug","year":"2009","journal-title":"Asian J of Social Psycho"},{"issue":"29","key":"pone.0336957.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7521","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1713191115","article-title":"Relational mobility predicts social behaviors in 39 countries and is tied to historical farming and threat","volume":"115","author":"R Thomson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"pone.0336957.ref052","unstructured":"Charities Aid Foundation. CAF World Giving Index 2023: Global trends in generosity. 2023."},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0336957.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691618803629","article-title":"Multiple Paths to Belonging That We Should Study Together","volume":"14","author":"JL Hirsch","year":"2019","journal-title":"Perspect Psychol Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0336957.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1080\/10463280540000007","article-title":"Sociometer theory and the pursuit of relational value: Getting to the root of self-esteem","volume":"16","author":"MR Leary","year":"2005","journal-title":"European Rev Social Psychology"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0336957.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1177\/0002764202045005007","article-title":"Considerations of Community","volume":"45","author":"AM Omoto","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am Behavioral Scientist"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0336957.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1888","DOI":"10.1093\/sf\/soac059","article-title":"Paws on the Street: Neighborhood-Level Concentration of Households with Dogs and Urban Crime","volume":"101","author":"NP Pinchak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soc Forces"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0336957","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]],"date-time":"2025-12-10T18:21:44Z","timestamp":1765390904000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0336957"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Vin\u00edcius Silva","family":"Belo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0336957","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]]}}}