{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T00:39:07Z","timestamp":1792802347659,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]],"date-time":"2026-01-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769558400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Isra University, Amman, Jordan","award":["24-4\/2023\/2024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24-4\/2023\/2024"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04d4bt482","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"\n Background<\/jats:title>\n The World Health Organization considers self-medication (SM) a critical global concern. SM has significant risks, including incorrect drug use, adverse reactions, misdiagnosis, and increased antibiotic resistance. The prevalence of SM is particularly high in developing countries, where students can purchase medications without medical supervision. This study investigates the prevalence of SM practices using over-the-counter (OTC) drugs and their associated predictors. Additionally, this study explores the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of university students in Jordan regarding SM.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Method<\/jats:title>\n A cross-sectional online survey study was conducted among university students in Jordan from March to September 2024. The questionnaire was distributed among university students through online social media platforms (Facebook, WhatsApp, and Instagram). To identify predictors of SM practice among university students, binary and multiple logistic regression analyses were implemented. A Chi-squared test was used to estimate the risk of SM among students.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Results<\/jats:title>\n Of 1,269 university students participating, 45.3% reported practicing SM. Knowledge about OTC drug safety was generally high, as most students identified the risks of combining OTC and prescription medications (83.5%) and the importance of avoiding expired drugs (95.5%). Medical students demonstrated significantly better knowledge of diseases manageable by OTC drugs and the likelihood of side effects (p\u2009<\u20090.001). Attitudes varied; the majority of students (71%) agreed that a doctor should be consulted before using OTC medications, pharmacists were the primary source of advice (51.2%), and antipyretics were the most commonly used medications (46.9%). Multiple logistic regression provided evidence that fifth-year students were significantly more likely to practice SM (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 2.38, p\u2009=\u20090.021). No other demographic variable was statistically associated with this practice.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n Fifth-year students exhibited a significantly higher estimated risk of practicing SM compared to their peers in other academic years. This highlights the need for targeted educational interventions to promote safe SM practices. These findings highlight the need for targeted educational interventions. However, the use of self-reported data is a limitation that may introduce recall or reporting bias.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0339915","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]],"date-time":"2026-01-28T18:23:56Z","timestamp":1769624636000},"page":"e0339915","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Prevalence, knowledge, attitudes, and practices concerning self-medication with over-the-counter drugs among university students in Jordan: A cross-sectional study"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8440-7446","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Abdallah Y.","family":"Naser","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0339915.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1090021","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1090021","article-title":"Prevalence of self-medication and associated factors among female students of health science colleges at Majmaah University: A cross-sectional study","volume":"11","author":"SB Loni","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0339915.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2023-072059","article-title":"Self-medication with over-the-counter drugs among consumers: a cross-sectional survey in a Southwestern State in Nigeria","volume":"13","author":"W Akande-Sholabi","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"pone.0339915.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.2147\/PPA.S274634","article-title":"Self-Medication Practice and Associated Factors Among University of Gondar College of Medicine and Health Sciences Students: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"14","author":"N Zeru","year":"2020","journal-title":"Patient Prefer Adherence"},{"key":"pone.0339915.ref004","author":"World Health Organization"},{"key":"pone.0339915.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20420986221127501","DOI":"10.1177\/20420986221127501","article-title":"Definition of self-medication: a scoping review","volume":"13","author":"D Baracaldo-Santamar\u00eda","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ther Adv Drug Saf"},{"key":"pone.0339915.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.2147\/PPA.S405279","article-title":"A Comparative Piloting of Determinants of Self-Medication Among University Students in the MENA Region; UAE and Jordan as an Example","volume":"17","author":"A Alzoubi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Patient Prefer Adherence"},{"key":"pone.0339915.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.2147\/RMHP.S230257","article-title":"

Self-Medication Among King Khalid University Students, Saudi Arabia","volume":"12","author":"SM Alshahrani","year":"2019","journal-title":"RMHP"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0339915.ref008","first-page":"51","article-title":"Prevalence of Self-Medication among Students of Pharmacy and Medicine Colleges of a Public Sector University in Dammam City, Saudi Arabia","volume":"5","author":"FA Albusalih","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pharmacy (Basel)"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0339915.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare13040372","article-title":"Prevalence and Predictors of Self-Medication Among Ophthalmic Patients in Jordan: A Cross-Sectional Analysis","volume":"13","author":"AI Ahmad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Healthcare (Basel)"},{"key":"pone.0339915.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433464","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2024.1433464","article-title":"Self-medication practice among the general public in Jordan: a cross-sectional study","volume":"12","author":"SMA Abuhamdah","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0339915.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsps.2023.01.015","article-title":"Information sources, attitudes, and practices of Self-Medication by Jordanian patients: A cross-sectional study","volume":"31","author":"W Al-Qerem","year":"2023","journal-title":"Saudi Pharm J"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0339915.ref012","first-page":"15","article-title":"Evaluation of self\u2011medication practice among pharmacy students in Jordan","volume":"11","author":"M Alsous","year":"2018","journal-title":"Jordan J Pharm Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0339915.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-019-6470-5","article-title":"Self-medication with over the counter drugs, prevalence of risky practice and its associated factors in pharmacy outlets of Asmara, Eritrea","volume":"19","author":"S Tesfamariam","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0339915.ref014","author":"Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0339915.ref015","first-page":"24","article-title":"Reliability of assessments in engineering education using Cronbach\u2019s alpha, KR and split-half methods","volume":"21","author":"SOEH Quainoo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Glob J Eng Educ"},{"key":"pone.0339915.ref016","unstructured":"Kumar A. Evaluate the prevalence, knowledge, and attitude of self-medication with analgesics among college students in NUST, Oman. 2024;6:8425\u201334."},{"issue":"38","key":"pone.0339915.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2652","DOI":"10.5897\/AJPP2013.3821","article-title":"Survey based study on the use of non-prescription drugs among pharmacists and non-pharmacists","volume":"7","author":"H Shoaib","year":"2013","journal-title":"Afr J Pharm Pharmacol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0339915.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9274610","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/9274610","article-title":"Self\u2010Medication Practices, Prevalence, and Associated Factors among Syrian Adult Patients: A Cross\u2010Sectional Study","volume":"2022","author":"RNK Abdelwahed","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Environ Pub Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0339915.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.2991\/dsahmj.k.200507.002","article-title":"Self-medication Practices and Knowledge among Lebanese Population: A Cross-sectional Study","volume":"2","author":"S Awada","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dr Sulaiman Al Habib Med J"},{"key":"pone.0339915.ref020","article-title":"Prevalence of self-medication in Brazil and associated factors","volume":"50","author":"PSD Arrais","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev Saude Publica"},{"key":"pone.0339915.ref021","author":"Miller AE NS"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0339915.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0232322","article-title":"Consumers\u2019 awareness, attitude and associated factors towards self-medication in Hail, Saudi Arabia","volume":"15","author":"M Ansari","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0339915.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmedr.2023.102457","article-title":"The prevalence of self-medication and its associated factors among college students: Cross-sectional study from Saudi Arabia","volume":"36","author":"IA Malli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Prev Med Rep"},{"key":"pone.0339915.ref024","author":"U.S Food and Drug Administration"},{"key":"pone.0339915.ref025","unstructured":"Jan\u00e9 PR, Meyer Y. Upholding the Humanitarian Principles in Conflict Areas \u2013 Challenges and Compromises: The Cases of Syria and Afghanistan. 2021."},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0339915.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s40545-021-00331-w","article-title":"Prevalence, knowledge and perception of self-medication practice among undergraduate healthcare students","volume":"14","author":"W Akande-Sholabi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Pharm Policy Pract"},{"key":"pone.0339915.ref027","unstructured":"Haroun MF, Al-Kayali R. Self\u2010medication among undergraduate medical students in two universities in Syria. 2017."},{"issue":"36","key":"pone.0339915.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000039378","article-title":"Knowledge, attitude, and practices of pharmacy students in 7 Middle Eastern countries concerning antibiotic resistance: A cross-sectional study","volume":"103","author":"AY Naser","year":"2024","journal-title":"Medicine (Baltimore)"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0339915.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/prp2.553","article-title":"The awareness of the Jordanian population about OTC medications: A cross-sectional study","volume":"8","author":"E Taybeh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pharmacol Res Perspect"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0339915.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.2174\/1574884715666200716150504","article-title":"Knowledge about Medicine Use in Pregnancy: A National Study among Pharmacy Students in Jordan","volume":"16","author":"E Taybeh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr Rev Clin Exp Pharmacol"},{"issue":"23","key":"pone.0339915.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3040","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare11233040","article-title":"Self-Medication Related Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices among Residents of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: A Community-Based Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"11","author":"AM Al-Qahtani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Healthcare (Basel)"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0339915.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.3390\/nursrep15020053","article-title":"Self-Medication Practice and Associated Factors Among Health Professionals in Spain","volume":"15","author":"EM Cotobal-Calvo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nurs Rep"},{"key":"pone.0339915.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.862301","article-title":"Prevalence, Predictors and Point of View Toward Self-Medication Among Residents of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"10","author":"BA Mannasaheb","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Public Health"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0339915","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]],"date-time":"2026-01-28T18:24:01Z","timestamp":1769624641000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0339915"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Eman A.","family":"Hammad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0339915","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]]}}}