{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T13:06:12Z","timestamp":1780319172955,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768262400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100019278","name":"Bangladesh Agricultural University Research System","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2021\/121\/BAU"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021\/121\/BAU"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100019278","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    <jats:italic>Toxoplasma gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    is a globally significant parasite with no genotyping data available from Bangladesh. This study aimed to determine the genotype distribution and associated risk factors of\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection in animals in Trishal Upazila, Mymensingh district. From June 2020 to December 2023, a total of 170 samples from cattle, goats, sheep, cats, dogs, chickens, and rodents in the study area and examined using nested PCR targeting the B1 gene of\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Positive samples were genotyped by multilocus nested PCR-RFLP at ten genetic markers. Risk factor data were analyzed using logistic regression at the farm or owner level. The overall infection rate of 21.76% (37\/170), with the highest prevalence observed in cyst samples from slaughtered cattle (42.9%) and cat feces (33.3%). Genotyping revealed a predominance of Type I and mixed genotypes (I\/II, I\/III) in cattle, cats, dogs, and rodents, while goats and sheep predominantly carried Type II or III. Chickens exhibited a mixed II\/III allelic pattern with Type I alleles at the\n                    <jats:italic>C22-8<\/jats:italic>\n                    locus. The use of pond\/river water as a drinking source was a significant risk factor, with animals from these sources showing more than threefold higher odds of infection compared to tube-well users (p\u2009=\u20090.038). Backyard or small-holder farming, improper carcasses\/offals\/ placenta disposal, lack of rodent control, and unhygienic slaughter practices showed positive but non-significant associations with infection. This first report of\n                    <jats:italic>T. gondii<\/jats:italic>\n                    genotyping in Bangladesh highlights the presence of diverse and potentially virulent genotypes in food-producing animals, posing a notable zoonotic risk.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0340911","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T18:22:25Z","timestamp":1768328545000},"page":"e0340911","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Genotype distribution and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection in animals of Trishal, Bangladesh"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Pijush Kumar","family":"Biswas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dipesh","family":"Aryal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"AL Nur","family":"Tarak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"family":"Anisuzzaman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6895-7501","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Md.","family":"Shahiduzzaman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]]},"reference":[{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0340911.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2009.02.004","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis: A history of clinical observations","volume":"39","author":"LM Weiss","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0340911.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2386","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2021.2386-2391","article-title":"Molecular detection of Toxoplasma gondii in aborted fetuses of goats in Chattogram, Bangladesh","volume":"14","author":"T Hasan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet World"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0340911.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5455\/ijlr.20201031015650","article-title":"Non-infectious causes of abortion in livestock animals\u2013a review","volume":"11","author":"R Yadav","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Livestock Res"},{"key":"pone.0340911.ref004","first-page":"59","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis in livestock in Italy: an epidemiological update","volume":"50","author":"L Rinaldi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Parassitologia"},{"issue":"04","key":"pone.0340911.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.4236\/ojmm.2018.84010","article-title":"Infection of Toxoplasma gondii in Humans and Livestock Animals: An Emerging Silent Threat for Bangladesh","volume":"08","author":"T Rahman","year":"2018","journal-title":"OJMM"},{"key":"pone.0340911.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-4017(93)90186-Q","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in domestic ruminants in Bangladesh","volume":"47","author":"MA Samad","year":"1993","journal-title":"Vet Parasitol"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0340911.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.11-0084","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence in domestic animals and humans in Mymensingh District, Bangladesh","volume":"73","author":"M Shahiduzzaman","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Vet Med Sci"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0340911.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2019.2440","article-title":"Evidence of Toxoplasma gondii in Rodents from Bangladesh","volume":"19","author":"IM Krijger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0340911.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.3329\/bjvm.v15i1.34060","article-title":"Seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in women in Mymensingh and Rangpur in Bangladesh: a hospital survey","volume":"15","author":"UH Margia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bangl J Vet Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0340911.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.15232\/S1080-7446(15)31480-7","article-title":"Review: Cost of Reproductive Diseases and Conditions in Cattle","volume":"18","author":"DS Bellows","year":"2002","journal-title":"The Professional Animal Scientist"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0340911.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.5455\/javar.2024.k811","article-title":"First report of Neospora caninum from aborted fetuses of cattle, sheep, and goats in Bangladesh","volume":"11","author":"M Shahiduzzaman","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Adv Vet Anim Res"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0340911.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2980","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gki604","article-title":"Composite genome map and recombination parameters derived from three archetypal lineages of Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"33","author":"A Khan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0340911.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4641","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01152-10","article-title":"Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii isolates with 15 microsatellite markers in a single multiplex PCR assay","volume":"48","author":"D Ajzenberg","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0340911.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1645\/GE-2465.1","article-title":"Genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii isolates from pigs in China","volume":"96","author":"P Zhou","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Parasitol"},{"key":"pone.0340911.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2017.06.002","article-title":"Geographical distribution of Toxoplasma gondii genotypes in Asia: A link with neighboring continents","volume":"53","author":"P Chaichan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect Genet Evol"},{"key":"pone.0340911.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2016.01.014","article-title":"Genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from autopsy proven cases of AIDS associated cerebral toxoplasmosis in South India","volume":"39","author":"BR Vijaykumar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect Genet Evol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0340911.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182013001844","article-title":"Geographical patterns of Toxoplasma gondii genetic diversity revealed by multilocus PCR-RFLP genotyping","volume":"141","author":"EK Shwab","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0340911.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.36.3.2730","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in South Asian countries","volume":"36","author":"M-U Khan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev Sci Tech"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0340911.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1787","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.27.8.1787-1792.1989","article-title":"Direct and sensitive detection of a pathogenic protozoan, Toxoplasma gondii, by polymerase chain reaction","volume":"27","author":"JL Burg","year":"1989","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"key":"pone.0340911.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-3-7","article-title":"Comparison of two DNA targets for the diagnosis of Toxoplasmosis by real-time PCR using fluorescence resonance energy transfer hybridization probes","volume":"3","author":"U Reischl","year":"2003","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0340911.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2004.06.007","article-title":"Genetic diversity, clonality and sexuality in Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"34","author":"D Ajzenberg","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol"},{"issue":"37","key":"pone.0340911.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14872","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0702356104","article-title":"Recent transcontinental sweep of Toxoplasma gondii driven by a single monomorphic chromosome","volume":"104","author":"A Khan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0340911.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182009991065","article-title":"Moving towards an integrated approach to molecular detection and identification of Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"137","author":"C Su","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"pone.0340911.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/cpmc.32","article-title":"Isolation, Culture and Cryopreservation of Sarcocystis species","volume":"45","author":"SK Verma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr Protoc Microbiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0340911.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.4081\/ijfs.2013.e41","article-title":"A new molecular approach to assess the occurrence of Sarcocystis spp. in cattle and products thereof: preliminary data","volume":"2","author":"F Chiesa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ital J Food Safety"},{"issue":"15","key":"pone.0340911.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1888","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199715000-00018","article-title":"A multicentre prospective study for the polymerase chain reaction detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in blood samples from 186 AIDS patients with suspected toxoplasmic encephalitis. Bio-Toxo Study Group","volume":"11","author":"H Pelloux","year":"1997","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0340911.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199409153311102","article-title":"Prenatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis with a polymerase-chain-reaction test on amniotic fluid","volume":"331","author":"P Hohlfeld","year":"1994","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0340911.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.39.1.398-400.2001","article-title":"Rapid identification of virulent type I strains of the protozoan pathogen Toxoplasma gondii by PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis at the B1 gene","volume":"39","author":"ME Grigg","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0340911.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1411","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.35.6.1411-1414.1997","article-title":"Determination of genotypes of Toxoplasma gondii strains isolated from patients with toxoplasmosis","volume":"35","author":"DK Howe","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0340911.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2006.03.003","article-title":"Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii by multilocus PCR-RFLP markers: a high resolution and simple method for identification of parasites","volume":"36","author":"C Su","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0340911.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1086\/322800","article-title":"Unusual abundance of atypical strains associated with human ocular toxoplasmosis","volume":"184","author":"ME Grigg","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0340911.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(00)00036-9","article-title":"Molecular typing of Toxoplasma gondii strains by GRA6 gene sequence analysis","volume":"30","author":"A Fazaeli","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol"},{"key":"pone.0340911.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fawpar.2019.e00052","article-title":"Diversity of Toxoplasma gondii strains at the global level and its determinants","volume":"15","author":"L Galal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Waterborne Parasitol"},{"key":"pone.0340911.ref034","article-title":"Human toxoplasmosis: a systematic review for genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii in clinical samples","volume":"147","author":"SA Hosseini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0340911.ref035","first-page":"112","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Humans","volume":"3","author":"JP Webster","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0340911.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.23975\/bjvr.2024.147020.1061","article-title":"Molecular Prevalence and Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii from Pet Cat Using PCR-RFLP","volume":"23","author":"F Ahmed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Basrah J Vet Res"},{"key":"pone.0340911.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(00)00124-7","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii: from animals to humans","volume":"30","author":"AM Tenter","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0340911.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.14096","article-title":"Genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii isolates from rodents in the world: A systematic review","volume":"69","author":"TM Galeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transbound Emerg Dis"},{"key":"pone.0340911.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-0902-6","article-title":"Diagnosis of toxoplasmosis and typing of Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"8","author":"Q Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"pone.0340911.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Costa GHN, da Costa AJ, Lopes WDZ, Bresciani KDS, dos Santos TR, Esper CR, et al. Toxoplasma gondii: Infection natural congenital in cattle and an experimental inoculation of gestating cows with oocysts. Exp Parasitol. 2011; 127(1): 277\u2013281. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.exppara.2010.08.005.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2010.08.005"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0340911.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-009-1686-4","article-title":"Investigation of Neospora caninum, Hammondia sp., and Toxoplasma gondii in tissues from slaughtered beef cattle in Bahia, Brazil","volume":"106","author":"SL Santos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasitol Res"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0340911.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1086\/342663","article-title":"Genotype of 86 Toxoplasma gondii isolates associated with human congenital toxoplasmosis, and correlation with clinical findings","volume":"186","author":"D Ajzenberg","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0340911.ref043","first-page":"124","article-title":"More than seventy years of research (1948 \u2013 November 2021) on Toxoplasma gondii in Iran: a narrative review","volume":"17","author":"M Sadeghi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Iran J Parasitol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0340911.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1007\/s12639-017-0908-4","article-title":"Isolation and characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from small ruminants (sheep and goats) in Chennai City, South India","volume":"41","author":"AS Satbige","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Parasit Dis"},{"key":"pone.0340911.ref045","first-page":"100425","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii infection in backyard chickens (Gallus domesticus): Seroprevalence and associated risk factors in Northwest Ethiopia","volume":"21","author":"M Chaklu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0340911.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2003.09.003","article-title":"Characterization of Toxoplasma gondii isolates from free range chickens from Paran\u00e1, Brazil","volume":"117","author":"JP Dubey","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vet Parasitol"},{"key":"pone.0340911.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2025.e00433","article-title":"Global geographical distribution of Toxoplasma gondii genotypes from dogs: A systematic review","volume":"30","author":"M Hataminejad","year":"2025","journal-title":"Parasite Epidemiol Control"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0340911","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T18:22:32Z","timestamp":1768328552000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0340911"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Dina","family":"Aboelsoued","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0340911","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]]}}}