{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T19:18:28Z","timestamp":1770837508413,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770768000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Centre for Research in Occupational Safety and Health","award":["SG 2022F"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SG 2022F"]}]},{"name":"Centre for Research in Occupational Safety and Health","award":["SG 2022F"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SG 2022F"]}]},{"name":"Centre for Research in Occupational Safety and Health","award":["SG 2022F"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SG 2022F"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Public transit vehicles represent small, dynamic, indoor spaces, with conditions that can be favourable for the development of poor air quality. The use of CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    monitors is recommended as a potential strategy for improving ventilation; however, information around how non-experts can use them for personal monitoring is limited. The purpose of this field study was to assess the real-world usability of a low-cost monitor, and to provide general recommendations around personal risk assessment using a monitor in combination with the evaluation of environmental factors. Measurements of CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    and surveying of commute conditions were carried out with two CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    monitors, the Vitalight and the Aranet, during 250 public transit trips between October 17\n                    <jats:sup>th<\/jats:sup>\n                    , 2022 and July 18\n                    <jats:sup>th<\/jats:sup>\n                    , 2023. Results show that CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    measurements taken by the Vitalight and the Aranet were highly correlated (Time 1 (T1): r\u2009=\u2009.948; Time 2 (T2): r\u2009=\u2009.966). Additionally, the Vitalight paralleled the Aranet with respect to its responses to: temperature; relative humidity; occupancy level; seating position; how often the bus doors opened; and whether the windows were open or closed. However, measurements of CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    taken by the Vitalight were significantly lower than those taken by the Aranet (T1:\n                    <jats:italic>t<\/jats:italic>\n                    (249) = \u221222.52, p\u2009&lt;\u2009.001; T2:\n                    <jats:italic>t<\/jats:italic>\n                    (249) = \u221232.44, p\u2009&lt;\u2009.001). Based on these results, we make three recommendations to provide guidance to non-experts around personal monitoring for ventilation on transit buses, including use and interpretation of the Vitalight monitor, and environmental conditions to assess, to inform actions to take to improve ventilation.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0342566","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T18:35:19Z","timestamp":1770834919000},"page":"e0342566","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Determining the reliability of the Vitalight CO2 Monitor via the assessment of the carbon dioxide profile on city transit buses"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-1053-779X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Courtney E.","family":"Lessel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Katie A.","family":"Goggins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alison A.","family":"Godwin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]]},"reference":[{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0342566.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2927","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17082927","article-title":"Indoor air pollution, related human diseases, and recent trends in the control and improvement of indoor air quality","volume":"17","author":"VV Tran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0342566.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos13020191","article-title":"A review of field measurement studies on thermal comfort, indoor air quality and virus risk","volume":"13","author":"C Kakoulli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atmosphere"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref003","first-page":"32","volume-title":"Role of ventilation in controlling SARS-CoV-2 transmission","author":"SAGE, EMG","year":"2020"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2023","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-16-7680-2_75","article-title":"Exposure to air pollutants in ground transport microenvironments.","volume-title":"Handbook of Indoor Air Quality","author":"SM Almeida","year":"2022"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1605803","DOI":"10.3389\/phrs.2023.1605803","article-title":"Indoor air quality and COVID-19: a scoping review","volume":"44","author":"A Braggion","year":"2024","journal-title":"Public Health Rev"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0342566.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1363","DOI":"10.1177\/1420326X211043564","article-title":"Predictive and retrospective modelling of airborne infection risk using monitored carbon dioxide","volume":"31","author":"HC Burridge","year":"2021","journal-title":"Indoor Built Environ"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113579","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2022.113579","article-title":"A review of strategies and their effectiveness in reducing indoor airborne transmission and improving indoor air quality","volume":"213","author":"AN Nair","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113709","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2021.113709","article-title":"Health, work performance, and risk of infection in office-like environments: The role of indoor temperature, air humidity, and ventilation","volume":"233","author":"P Wolkoff","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Hyg Environ Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0342566.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.estlett.1c00183","article-title":"Exhaled CO2 as a COVID-19 infection risk proxy for different indoor environments and activities","volume":"8","author":"Z Peng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ Sci Technol Lett"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0342566.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3487","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-47777-5","article-title":"Ambient carbon dioxide concentration correlates with SARS-CoV-2 aerostability and infection risk","volume":"15","author":"A Haddrell","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0342566.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6605","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19116605","article-title":"The control of metabolic CO2 in public transport as a strategy to reduce the transmission of respiratory infectious diseases","volume":"19","author":"M Baselga","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165879","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.165879","article-title":"Potential airborne human pathogens: A relevant inhabitant in built environments but not considered in indoor air quality standards","volume":"901","author":"E Carrazana","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref013","author":"ASHRAE","year":"2022"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref014","first-page":"20","volume-title":"Application of CO2 monitoring as an approach to managing ventilation to mitigate SARS-CoV-2 transmission","author":"EMG, SPI-B","year":"2021"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref015","author":"Y Ishigaki","year":"2023","journal-title":"Accuracy Verification of Low-Cost Co2 Sensors Used for Covid-19 Risk Mitigation. Rochester, NY"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0342566.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0668.2003.00189.x","article-title":"Risk of indoor airborne infection transmission estimated from carbon dioxide concentration","volume":"13","author":"SN Rudnick","year":"2003","journal-title":"Indoor Air"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref017","author":"ASHRAE","year":"2022"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1637","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-16-7680-2_54","article-title":"Influence of ventilation on indoor air quality","author":"M Lv","year":"2022","journal-title":"Handbook of Indoor Air Quality. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0342566.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1111\/ina.12383","article-title":"Carbon dioxide generation rates for building occupants","volume":"27","author":"A Persily","year":"2017","journal-title":"Indoor Air"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref020","author":"ASHRAE","year":"2023"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0342566.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3262","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-07290-5","article-title":"Time and spatially resolved tracking of the air quality in local public transport","volume":"12","author":"T Salthammer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref022","author":"D Elfstrom","year":"2020"},{"issue":"21","key":"pone.0342566.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14560","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph192114560","article-title":"Response to the COVID-19 pandemic in classrooms at the university of the basque country through a user-informed natural ventilation demonstrator","volume":"19","author":"I Rodr\u00edguez-Vidal","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref024","first-page":"197","article-title":"Empirical Studies Assessing the CO2 Levels in Indoor Spaces.","author":"S Gangrade","year":"2023","journal-title":"Design in the Era of Industry 40"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0342566.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.20411\/pai.v7i1.495","article-title":"Planes, trains, and automobiles: use of carbon dioxide monitoring to assess ventilation during travel","volume":"7","author":"JL Cadnum","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pathog Immun"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0342566.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.20411\/pai.v8i1.619","article-title":"Carbon dioxide monitoring demonstrates variations in the quality of ventilation on public transportation buses and university student shuttle vans and identifies effective interventions","volume":"8","author":"DH Greentree","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pathog Immun"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0342566.ref027","article-title":"Poor ventilation worsens short-range airborne transmission of respiratory infection","volume":"32","author":"Y Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Indoor Air"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref028","first-page":"16","author":"A Eykelbosh","year":"2021"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0342566.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1080\/15459624.2017.1339165","article-title":"Evaluating bioaerosol exposure among bus drivers in the public transport sector","volume":"14","author":"B Nowakowicz-D\u0119bek","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Occup Environ Hyg"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref030","author":"Statistics Canada","year":"2024"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0342566.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2108","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph110202108","article-title":"Effects of age, season, gender and urban-rural status on time-activity: CanadianHuman Activity Pattern Survey 2 (CHAPS 2)","volume":"11","author":"CJ Matz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0342566.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-017-0532-6","article-title":"Evaluation of daily time spent in transportation and traffic-influenced microenvironments by urban Canadians","volume":"11","author":"CJ Matz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Air Qual Atmos Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0342566.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1038\/s41370-020-0242-2","article-title":"Personal exposures to traffic-related air pollution in three Canadian bus transit systems: the Urban Transportation Exposure Study","volume":"31","author":"K Van Ryswyk","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0342566.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20821","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-23369-y","article-title":"Air circulation study inside and outside of urban buses induced by the opening of windows","volume":"30","author":"SF Corzo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ Sci Pollut Res Int"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0342566.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2077","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2010.03.004","article-title":"Experimental and numerical investigation of micro-environmental conditions in public transportation buses","volume":"45","author":"S Zhu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Build Environ"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2021.112451","article-title":"How can ventilation be improved on public transportation buses? Insights from CO2 measurements","volume":"205","author":"X Querol","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2015.07.022","article-title":"Urban air quality comparison for bus, tram, subway and pedestrian commutes in Barcelona","volume":"142","author":"T Moreno","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref038","author":"Government of Canada","year":"2024"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref039","author":"Government of Ontario","year":"2024"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref040","author":"Government of Canada","year":"2022"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1080\/05704928.2022.2085734","article-title":"Review of low-cost sensors for indoor air quality: Features and applications","volume":"57","author":"M R\u00f3denas Garc\u00eda","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl Spectrosc Rev"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.06.266","article-title":"End-user perspective of low-cost sensors for outdoor air pollution monitoring","author":"AC Rai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0342566.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2977","DOI":"10.1021\/es505362x","article-title":"Variability in and agreement between modeled and personal continuously measured black carbon levels using novel smartphone and sensor technologies","volume":"49","author":"MJ Nieuwenhuijsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ Sci Technol"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref044","first-page":"20","author":"Public Health Ontario","year":"2023"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref045","author":"City of Greater Sudbury","year":"2023"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref046","author":"City of Greater Sudbury","year":"2023"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref047","volume-title":"2022 Annual Report: For the year ending December 31, 2022","author":"City of Greater Sudbury","year":"2023"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2020.107415","article-title":"Performance assessment of low-cost environmental monitors and single sensors under variable indoor air quality and thermal conditions","volume":"187","author":"I Demanega","year":"2021","journal-title":"Build Environ"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref049","author":"E Brooke","year":"2022"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref050","author":"F Villanueva","year":"2021"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref051","volume-title":"The Basic Practice of Statistics","author":"DS Moore","year":"2013"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref052","author":"NASA","year":"2025"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref053","author":"OpenStreetMap Contributors"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref054","volume-title":"Abnormal Respirations","author":"L Whited","year":"2025"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref055","first-page":"1","author":"MB Marinov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Performance evaluation of low-cost carbon dioxide sensors. Proc XXVII International Scientific Conference Electronics. Sozopol, Bulgaria: IEEE"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2016.07.036","article-title":"Field calibration of a cluster of low-cost commercially available sensors for air quality monitoring. Part B: NO, CO and CO2","volume":"238","author":"L Spinelle","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens Actuators B: Chem"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2023.110489","article-title":"Multi-scale risk assessment and mitigations comparison for COVID-19 in urban public transport: A combined field measurement and modeling approach","volume":"242","author":"Y Feng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Build Environ"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0342566.ref058","article-title":"Carbon dioxide concentrations and temperatures within tour buses under real-time traffic conditions","volume":"10","author":"C-F Chiu","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0342566.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos12101267","article-title":"Air flow experiments on a train carriage\u2014towards understanding the risk of airborne transmission","volume":"12","author":"H Woodward","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmosphere"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0342566.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.0c01863","article-title":"Chamberless NDIR CO2 sensor robust against environmental fluctuations","volume":"6","author":"M Vafaei","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Sens"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0342566.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012007","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/884\/1\/012007","article-title":"Effect of temperature, pressure and humidity on carbon dioxide concentration\u2014simulation study","volume":"884","author":"OP Singh","year":"2020","journal-title":"IOP Conf Ser: Mater Sci Eng"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref062","first-page":"203","volume-title":"Accuracy and Air Temperature Dependency of Commercial Low-cost NDIR CO2 Sensors: An Experimental Investigation. Proceedings of COBEE2018. Melbourne, Australia","author":"J Petersen","year":"2018"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref063","first-page":"271","article-title":"An experimental evaluation of HVAC-grade carbon-dioxide sensors--Part 3: humidity, temperature, and pressure sensitivity test results","volume":"116","author":"SS Shrestha","year":"2010","journal-title":"ASHRAE Transac"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0342566.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2006.07.005","article-title":"Air quality in a commercial truck cabin","volume":"11","author":"X Cheng","year":"2006","journal-title":"Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0342566.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1080\/15459624.2022.2050739","article-title":"Investigating dilution ventilation control strategies in a modern U.S. school bus in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"19","author":"M Van Dyke","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Occup Environ Hyg"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0342566.ref066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012010","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/664\/1\/012010","article-title":"Accumulation of metabolic carbon dioxide (CO2) in a vehicle cabin","volume":"664","author":"RA Angelova","year":"2019","journal-title":"IOP Conf Ser: Mater Sci Eng"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0342566.ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1007\/s42757-022-0146-6","article-title":"Spatial distributions of airborne transmission risk on commuter buses: Numerical case study using computational fluid and particle dynamics with computer-simulated persons","volume":"5","author":"S-J Yoo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Exp Comput Multiph Flow"},{"key":"pone.0342566.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.151769","article-title":"Performance evaluation of low-cost air quality sensors: A review","volume":"818","author":"Y Kang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"issue":"01","key":"pone.0342566.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.4236\/ojps.2021.111012","article-title":"A practical approach to indoor air quality for municipal public health and safety","volume":"11","author":"NJ Edwards","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open J Polit Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0342566.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1111\/ina.12252","article-title":"Can changing the timing of outdoor air intake reduce indoor concentrations of traffic-related pollutants in schools?","volume":"26","author":"M MacNeill","year":"2016","journal-title":"Indoor Air"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0342566","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T18:35:27Z","timestamp":1770834927000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0342566"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Ashfaque Ahmed","family":"Chowdhury","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0342566","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]]}}}