{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T18:08:29Z","timestamp":1792087709599,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774224000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000030","name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["5U51IP000155"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5U51IP000155"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000030","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007364","name":"Fondazione CRT","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Lagrange project"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Lagrange project"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007364","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007364","name":"Fondazione CRT","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["Lagrange project"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Lagrange project"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007364","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007364","name":"Fondazione CRT","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Lagrange project"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Lagrange project"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007364","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010665","name":"H2020 Marie Sk\u0142odowska-Curie Actions","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["955708"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["955708"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010665","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Households play a crucial role in the propagation of infectious diseases due to the frequent and prolonged interactions that typically occur between their members. Recent studies have emphasized the need to include socioeconomic variables in epidemic models to account for the heterogeneity induced by human behavior. While sub-Saharan Africa suffers the highest burden of infectious disease diffusion, few studies have investigated the mixing patterns in the countries and their relation with social indicators. This work analyzes household contact matrices measured with wearable proximity sensors in a rural and an urban village in South Africa. Leveraging a rich data collection describing additional individual and household attributes, we investigate how the household contact matrix varies according to the household type (whether it is composed only of a familiar nucleus or by a larger group), the gender of its head (the primary decision-maker), the rural or urban context, and the season in which it was measured. We show the household type and the gender of its head induce differences in the interaction patterns between household members, particularly regarding child caregiving, suggesting they are relevant attributes to include in epidemic modeling.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0344732","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T17:34:26Z","timestamp":1774287266000},"page":"e0344732","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Relationship between household attributes and contact patterns in urban and rural South Africa"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Kausutua","family":"Tjikundi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7081-6273","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jackie","family":"Kleynhans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4395-347X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Stefano","family":"Tempia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cheryl","family":"Cohen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniela","family":"Paolotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ciro","family":"Cattuto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7493-6421","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Lorenzo","family":"Dall\u2019Amico","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]]},"reference":[{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0344732.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/S0966-842X(99)01546-2","article-title":"Perspective: human contact patterns and the spread of airborne infectious diseases","volume":"7","author":"J Wallinga","year":"1999","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref002","volume-title":"Infectious diseases of humans: dynamics and control","author":"RM Anderson","year":"1992"},{"issue":"6006","key":"pone.0344732.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"982","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1194134","article-title":"Contact network structure explains the changing epidemiology of pertussis","volume":"330","author":"P Rohani","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"1384","key":"pone.0344732.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.1997.0131","article-title":"Who mixes with whom? A method to determine the contact patterns of adults that may lead to the spread of airborne infections","volume":"264","author":"WJ Edmunds","year":"1997","journal-title":"Proc Biol Sci"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0344732.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwj317","article-title":"Using data on social contacts to estimate age-specific transmission parameters for respiratory-spread infectious agents","volume":"164","author":"J Wallinga","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0344732.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0050074","article-title":"Social contacts and mixing patterns relevant to the spread of infectious diseases","volume":"5","author":"J Mossong","year":"2008","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344732.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2429","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-22601-6","article-title":"Estimating the effect of social inequalities on the mitigation of COVID-19 across communities in Santiago de Chile","volume":"12","author":"N Gozzi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"181","key":"pone.0344732.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20210092","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2021.0092","article-title":"Socio-economic determinants of mobility responses during the first wave of COVID-19 in Italy: from provinces to neighbourhoods","volume":"18","author":"L Gauvin","year":"2021","journal-title":"J R Soc Interface"},{"issue":"7866","key":"pone.0344732.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03694-x","article-title":"Thinking clearly about social aspects of infectious disease transmission","volume":"595","author":"C Buckee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344732.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2897","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-30688-8","article-title":"Addressing the socioeconomic divide in computational modeling for infectious diseases","volume":"13","author":"M Tizzoni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0344732.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1009795","article-title":"There are no equal opportunity infectors: Epidemiological modelers must rethink our approach to inequality in infection risk","volume":"18","author":"J Zelner","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS Comput Biol"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0344732.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1013585","article-title":"Social inequalities in vaccine coverage and their effects on epidemic spreading","volume":"21","author":"A Manna","year":"2025","journal-title":"PLoS Comput Biol"},{"issue":"41","key":"pone.0344732.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adk4606","article-title":"Generalized contact matrices allow integrating socioeconomic variables into epidemic models","volume":"10","author":"A Manna","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Adv"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344732.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4137","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-48332-y","article-title":"Importance of social inequalities to contact patterns, vaccine uptake, and epidemic dynamics","volume":"15","author":"A Manna","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7218","DOI":"10.1038\/srep07218","article-title":"The role of different social contexts in shaping influenza transmission during the 2009 pandemic","volume":"4","author":"M Ajelli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344732.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-20544-y","article-title":"Inferring high-resolution human mixing patterns for disease modeling","volume":"12","author":"D Mistry","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"1893","key":"pone.0344732.ref017","first-page":"20182201","article-title":"Household members do not contact each other at random: implications for infectious disease modelling","volume":"285","author":"N Goeyvaerts","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc Biol Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0344732.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a113356","article-title":"Estimating household and community transmission parameters for influenza","volume":"115","author":"IM Longini","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0344732.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000001047","article-title":"A Systematic Review of Social Contact Surveys to Inform Transmission Models of Close-contact Infections","volume":"30","author":"T Hoang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref020","volume-title":"World health statistics 2024: monitoring health for the SDGs, sustainable development goals","author":"Organization WH","year":"2024"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0344732.ref021","article-title":"Quantifying age-related rates of social contact using diaries in a rural coastal population of Kenya","volume":"9","author":"MC Kiti","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344732.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0170459","article-title":"Social Contact Structures and Time Use Patterns in the Manicaland Province of Zimbabwe","volume":"12","author":"A Melegaro","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344732.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-018-3073-1","article-title":"Characteristics of human encounters and social mixing patterns relevant to infectious diseases spread by close contact: a survey in Southwest Uganda","volume":"18","author":"O le Polain de Waroux","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epidem.2018.05.008","article-title":"Identifying human encounters that shape the transmission of Streptococcus pneumoniae and other acute respiratory infections","volume":"25","author":"O le Polain de Waroux","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epidemics"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-11136-6","article-title":"A cross-sectional study measuring contact patterns using diaries in an urban and a rural community in South Africa, 2018","volume":"21","author":"J Kleynhans","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-016-0084-2","article-title":"Quantifying social contacts in a household setting of rural Kenya using wearable proximity sensors","volume":"5","author":"MC Kiti","year":"2016","journal-title":"EPJ Data Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344732.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-021-00302-w","article-title":"Using wearable proximity sensors to characterize social contact patterns in a village of rural Malawi","volume":"10","author":"L Ozella","year":"2021","journal-title":"EPJ Data Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0344732.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0296810","article-title":"Estimating household contact matrices structure from easily collectable metadata","volume":"19","author":"L Dall\u2019Amico","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.84753","article-title":"Association of close-range contact patterns with SARS-CoV-2: a household transmission study","volume":"12","author":"J Kleynhans","year":"2023","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epidem.2024.100790","article-title":"Directly observed social contact patterns among school children in rural Gambia","volume":"49","author":"I Osei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Epidemics"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344732.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21589","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-00799-1","article-title":"Individual\u2019s daily behaviour and intergenerational mixing in different social contexts of Kenya","volume":"11","author":"E Del Fava","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0344732.ref032","first-page":"156","article-title":"Age- and Sex-Specific Social Contact Patterns and Incidence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection","volume":"183","author":"PJ Dodd","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344732.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.3201\/eid3101.240875","article-title":"Social Contact Patterns in Rural and Urban Settings, Mozambique, 2021\u20132022","volume":"31","author":"MC Kiti","year":"2025","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100625","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epidem.2022.100625","article-title":"Social contacts and other risk factors for respiratory infections among internally displaced people in Somaliland","volume":"41","author":"K van Zandvoort","year":"2022","journal-title":"Epidemics"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0344732.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwr251","article-title":"Social mixing patterns within a South African township community: implications for respiratory disease transmission and control","volume":"174","author":"SP Johnstone-Robertson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref036","unstructured":"Ibisomi LD, De Wet N. The dynamics of household structure in sub-Saharan Africa. Continuity and change in sub-Saharan African demography. 2014. 173 p."},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref037","unstructured":"Noumbissi A, Bawah AA. Parental survival and residential patterns. The demography of South Africa. 2016. 160 p."},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1891","DOI":"10.4054\/DemRes.2017.37.59","article-title":"Household structure vs. composition: Understanding gendered effects on educational progress in rural South Africa","volume":"37","author":"S Madhavan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Demogr Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344732.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-023-06485-x","article-title":"Dynamic household structure and composition: a manual for longitudinal analysis of living arrangements","volume":"16","author":"A Menashe-Oren","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Res Notes"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0344732.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1007589","article-title":"Fine-scale family structure shapes influenza transmission risk in households: Insights from primary schools in Matsumoto city, 2014\/15","volume":"15","author":"A Endo","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS Comput Biol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0344732.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0198733","article-title":"Close encounters between infants and household members measured through wearable proximity sensors","volume":"13","author":"L Ozella","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0344732.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0219323","article-title":"Modeling household dynamics on Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)","volume":"14","author":"W Mahikul","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"157","key":"pone.0344732.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20190317","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2019.0317","article-title":"Incorporating household structure and demography into models of endemic disease","volume":"16","author":"J Hilton","year":"2019","journal-title":"J R Soc Interface"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.10203","article-title":"A model of population dynamics with complex household structure and mobility: implications for transmission and control of communicable diseases","volume":"8","author":"RH Chisholm","year":"2020","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.70294","article-title":"Social contact patterns and implications for infectious disease transmission - a systematic review and meta-analysis of contact surveys","volume":"10","author":"A Mousa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Elife"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0344732.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268808001416","article-title":"Household structure and infectious disease transmission","volume":"137","author":"T House","year":"2009","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0344732.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1745","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyac158","article-title":"Association between household composition and severe COVID-19 outcomes in older people by ethnicity: an observational cohort study using the OpenSAFELY platform","volume":"51","author":"K Wing","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"209","key":"pone.0344732.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20230087","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2023.0087","article-title":"Population age and household structures shape transmission dynamics of emerging infectious diseases: a longitudinal microsimulation approach","volume":"20","author":"S M\u00f8gelmose","year":"2023","journal-title":"J R Soc Interface"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0344732.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1111\/irv.12881","article-title":"Cohort profile: A Prospective Household cohort study of Influenza, Respiratory syncytial virus and other respiratory pathogens community burden and Transmission dynamics in South Africa, 2016-2018","volume":"15","author":"C Cohen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Influenza Other Respir Viruses"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0344732.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0011596","article-title":"Dynamics of person-to-person interactions from distributed RFID sensor networks","volume":"5","author":"C Cattuto","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0344732.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-198912000-00005","article-title":"Networks of sexual contacts: implications for the pattern of spread of HIV","volume":"3","author":"S Gupta","year":"1989","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0344732.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1005697","article-title":"Projecting social contact matrices in 152 countries using contact surveys and demographic data","volume":"13","author":"K Prem","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Comput Biol"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400841035","volume-title":"Modeling infectious diseases in humans and animals","author":"MJ Keeling","year":"2008"},{"issue":"47","key":"pone.0344732.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2009.0386","article-title":"The construction of next-generation matrices for compartmental epidemic models","volume":"7","author":"O Diekmann","year":"2010","journal-title":"J R Soc Interface"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0344732.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jea.7500244","article-title":"It\u2019s about time: a comparison of Canadian and American time-activity patterns","volume":"12","author":"JA Leech","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2012.03.002","article-title":"Activity pattern of a selected group of school occupants and their family members in Helsinki\u2014Finland","volume":"425","author":"T Hussein","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0344732.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1080\/0376835X.2018.1452716","article-title":"Who cares for children? A quantitative study of childcare in South Africa","volume":"35","author":"M Hatch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dev South Afr"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref058","volume-title":"Female household headship and the feminisation of poverty: facts, fictions and forward strategies","author":"S Chant","year":"2003"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref059","unstructured":"Equality UNEFG, the Empowerment of Women. Progress of the world\u2019s women 2019-2020: Families in a changing world. Un Women; 2019."},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref060","first-page":"227","article-title":"Female-headed households.","volume-title":"Women in the Third World: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Issues","author":"S Desai","year":"1998"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref061","volume-title":"Gender roles and opportunities for women in urban environments. Governance and Social Development Resource Centre (GSDRC) Helpdesk Research Report","author":"P Pozarny","year":"2016"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0344732.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1080\/03057070.2014.946214","article-title":"\u2018Women Can Do What Men Can Do\u2019: The Causes and Consequences of Growing Flexibility in Gender Divisions of Labour in Kitwe, Zambia","volume":"40","author":"A Evans","year":"2014","journal-title":"J South Afr Stud"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0344732.ref063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0023176","article-title":"High-resolution measurements of face-to-face contact patterns in a primary school","volume":"6","author":"J Stehl\u00e9","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0344732.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0107878","article-title":"Contact patterns among high school students","volume":"9","author":"J Fournet","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0344732.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/annotation\/b20d3cec-62b7-44ec-9150-8a06a9b30a9b","article-title":"Estimating potential infection transmission routes in hospital wards using wearable proximity sensors","volume":"8","author":"P Vanhems","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344732.ref066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-018-0140-1","article-title":"Can co-location be used as a proxy for face-to-face contacts?","volume":"7","author":"M G\u00e9nois","year":"2018","journal-title":"EPJ Data Science"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref067","first-page":"223","article-title":"Household Organisation and Survival in Developing Countries.","volume-title":"International Encyclopedia of Housing and Home","author":"S. Chant","year":"2011"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0344732.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1080\/03768350120097487","article-title":"Who are the heads of household, what do they do, and is the concept of headship useful? An analysis of headship in South Africa","volume":"18","author":"DR Posel","year":"2001","journal-title":"Dev South Afr"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0344732.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.3138\/jcfs.39.4.429","article-title":"Gender Differentials in Household Structure and Socioeconomic Characteristics in South Africa","volume":"39","author":"EW Dungumaro","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Comp Fam Stud"},{"key":"pone.0344732.ref070","volume-title":"General Household Survey 2022","author":"Statistics South Africa","year":"2022"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0344732","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T17:34:39Z","timestamp":1774287279000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0344732"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Okikiolu","family":"Badejo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0344732","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]]}}}