{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T17:44:14Z","timestamp":1792691054348,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792627200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024\/07378\/IACDC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024\/07378\/IACDC"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024\/07378\/IACDC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024\/07378\/IACDC"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024\/07378\/IACDC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024\/07378\/IACDC"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024\/07601\/IACDC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024\/07601\/IACDC"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024\/07601\/IACDC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024\/07601\/IACDC"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2024\/07601\/IACDC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024\/07601\/IACDC"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/04152\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04152\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/04152\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04152\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIDB\/04152\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04152\/2020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Economic diversification is commonly modeled using co-occurrence-based measures of relatedness that quantify pairwise overlap among activities in a capability network. Although such measures are derived from network structure, they operate at the level of first-order neighborhood relations and summarize proximity through local co-occurrence. They do not explicitly encode higher-order structural context, such as indirect connectivity patterns or global positional similarity, into a continuous representation of entities and activities. We develop an embedding-based framework that learns such representations from network topology, enabling the construction of interpretable geometric features, including capability alignment, displacement, and portfolio entropy, that extend standard measures used in economic complexity. We apply this framework to two systems: international trade (1998\u20132023) and public procurement firms (2009\u20132024). The resulting representations reveal different structural organization across scales: firms exhibit modular clustering patterns, whereas countries occupy broader, nested capability configurations. In predictive tasks for product and activity specialization, embedding-derived features provide additional explanatory power beyond relatedness in several settings, particularly when forecasting variation in the magnitude of comparative advantage. For country-level entry events, however, persistence remains the strongest predictor. Our results show that relatedness remains the dominant predictor of entry events. In contrast, embedding-derived features become more informative in specific settings, particularly for modeling variation in specialization magnitude and in low-relatedness regimes. More broadly, the findings indicate that diversification depends on structural signals that are both prediction-target-dependent and scale-dependent, with relatedness and embedding-derived features capturing different aspects of the capability space (local overlap vs. structural position).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0344958","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T17:30:16Z","timestamp":1792690216000},"page":"e0344958","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The latent structure of diversification from relatedness and network embeddings"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2070-844X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Niclas Frederic","family":"Sturm","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Nova IMS, Universidade Nova de Lisboa","place":["Lisbon, Portugal"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9654-543X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Cristian","family":"Candia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Computational Research in Social Science Laboratory, School of Engineering and School of Government, Universidad del Desarrollo","place":["Santiago, Chile"]},{"name":"Instituto de Data Science, Universidad del Desarrollo","place":["Santiago, Chile"],"department":["Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda"]},{"name":"Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems, Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University","place":["Evanston, United States of America"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruno","family":"Dam\u00e1sio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nova IMS, Universidade Nova de Lisboa","place":["Lisbon, Portugal"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0561-9641","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Fl\u00e1vio L.","family":"Pinheiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nova IMS, Universidade Nova de Lisboa","place":["Lisbon, Portugal"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0344958.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1038\/s42254-020-00275-1","article-title":"Economic complexity theory and applications","volume":"3","author":"CA Hidalgo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Rev Phys"},{"issue":"26","key":"pone.0344958.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10570","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0900943106","article-title":"The building blocks of economic complexity","volume":"106","author":"CA Hidalgo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"5837","key":"pone.0344958.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1144581","article-title":"The product space conditions the development of nations","volume":"317","author":"CA Hidalgo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref004","first-page":"451","article-title":"The principle of relatedness","volume-title":"The Principle of Relatedness","author":"CA Hidalgo","year":"2018"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0344958.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.respol.2021.104323","article-title":"The time and frequency of unrelated diversification","volume":"51","author":"FL Pinheiro","year":"2022","journal-title":"Research Policy"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0344958.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2097","DOI":"10.1080\/09654313.2016.1246517","article-title":"Related variety and economic development: a literature review","volume":"24","author":"J Content","year":"2016","journal-title":"European Planning Studies"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0344958.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1177\/0263774X15614729","article-title":"Relatedness and diversification in the European Union (EU-27) and European Neighbourhood Policy countries","volume":"34","author":"R Boschma","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0344958.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104952","DOI":"10.1016\/j.respol.2024.104952","article-title":"Evaluating the principle of relatedness: Estimation, drivers and implications for policy","volume":"53","author":"Y Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Research Policy"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/01600176221082308","article-title":"Relatedness, complexity, and economic growth in Chinese cities","volume":"46","author":"Y Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"International Regional Science Review"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0344958.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1922","DOI":"10.1080\/00343404.2013.854878","article-title":"Technological Relatedness and Knowledge Space: Entry and Exit of US Cities from Patent Classes","volume":"49","author":"DL Rigby","year":"2013","journal-title":"Regional Studies"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0344958.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.1080\/00343404.2018.1437900","article-title":"Smart specialization policy in the European Union: relatedness, knowledge complexity and regional diversification","volume":"53","author":"P-A Balland","year":"2018","journal-title":"Regional Studies"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0344958.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1080\/00343404.2016.1254767","article-title":"Relatedness as driver of regional diversification: a research agenda","volume":"51","author":"R Boschma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Regional Studies"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1944-8287.2012.01170.x","article-title":"The Emergence of New Industries at the Regional Level in Spain: A Proximity Approach Based on Product Relatedness","volume":"89","author":"R Boschma","year":"2012","journal-title":"Economic Geography"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0344958.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.3390\/e20100785","article-title":"Colombian export capabilities: building the firms-products network","volume":"20","author":"M Bruno","year":"2018","journal-title":"Entropy"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0344958.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1093\/wber\/lht037","article-title":"Product Relatedness and Firm Exports in China","volume":"29","author":"S Poncet","year":"2013","journal-title":"The World Bank Economic Review"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0344958.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1002\/smj.2014","article-title":"Skill relatedness and firm diversification","volume":"34","author":"F Neffke","year":"2012","journal-title":"Strategic Management Journal"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0344958.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4901","DOI":"10.1007\/s11192-023-04775-6","article-title":"Technological relatedness: how do firms diversify their technology?","volume":"128","author":"SH Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Scientometrics"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/S0048-7333(02)00004-5","article-title":"Knowledge-relatedness in firm technological diversification","volume":"32","author":"S Breschi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Research Policy"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0344958.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1695","DOI":"10.1007\/s11192-016-2125-9","article-title":"The research space: using career paths to predict the evolution of the research output of individuals, institutions, and nations","volume":"109","author":"MR Guevara","year":"2016","journal-title":"Scientometrics"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0344958.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.respol.2026.105422","article-title":"The software complexity of nations","volume":"55","author":"S Juh\u00e1sz","year":"2026","journal-title":"Research Policy"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0344958.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-022-01367-x","article-title":"The latent structure of global scientific development","volume":"6","author":"L Miao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1328","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-03740-9","article-title":"Optimal diversification strategies in the networks of related products and of related research areas","volume":"9","author":"A Alshamsi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0344958.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1447","DOI":"10.1080\/00343404.2019.1580817","article-title":"How do new music genres emerge? Diversification processes in symbolic knowledge bases","volume":"53","author":"B Klement","year":"2019","journal-title":"Regional Studies"},{"issue":"38","key":"pone.0344958.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3815","DOI":"10.1080\/00036846.2016.1270413","article-title":"Economic complexity, human capital and economic growth: empirical research based on cross-country panel data","volume":"49","author":"S Zhu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Applied Economics"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0344958.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0161633","article-title":"The Impact of Services on Economic Complexity: Service Sophistication as Route for Economic Growth","volume":"11","author":"V Stojkoski","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2020.105317","article-title":"Economic complexity and greenhouse gas emissions","volume":"139","author":"JP Romero","year":"2021","journal-title":"World Development"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2020.102150","article-title":"Export structures, income inequality and urban-rural divide in China","volume":"115","author":"S Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Applied Geography"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.2307\/2393553","article-title":"Absorptive capacity: A new perspective on learning and innovation","volume":"35","author":"WM Cohen","year":"1990","journal-title":"Administrative Science Quarterly"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-2681(94)90094-9","article-title":"Understanding corporate coherence","volume":"23","author":"DJ Teece","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref030","first-page":"1","article-title":"The concept of relatedness in diversification research: review and synthesis","volume":"14","author":"A L\u00fcthge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev Manag Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-28179-x","article-title":"Product progression: a machine learning approach to forecasting industrial upgrading","volume":"13","author":"G Albora","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/2095048","article-title":"Machine Learning to Assess Relatedness: The Advantage of Using Firm\u2010Level Data","volume":"2022","author":"G Albora","year":"2022","journal-title":"Complexity"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0344958.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035002","DOI":"10.1088\/2632-072X\/ac768d","article-title":"Which will be your firm\u2019s next technology? Comparison between machine learning and network-based algorithms","volume":"3","author":"M Straccamore","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Phys Complex"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chaos.2023.114071","article-title":"Relatedness in the era of machine learning","volume":"176","author":"A Tacchella","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chaos, Solitons & Fractals"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9639","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-13206-0","article-title":"A machine learning approach to economic complexity based on matrix completion","volume":"12","author":"G Gnecco","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jebo.2025.107011","article-title":"Predicting the technological complexity of global cities based on unsupervised and supervised machine learning methods","volume":"234","author":"F Nutarelli","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref037","unstructured":"Huang Y, Xu S, L\u00fc L, Zaccaria A, Mariani MS. Uncovering key predictors of high-growth firms via explainable machine learning. arXiv. 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/ARXIV.2408.09149"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0344958.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1632","DOI":"10.1002\/smj.3317","article-title":"Using machine learning to revisit the diversification\u2013performance relationship","volume":"42","author":"J Choi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Strategic Management Journal"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref039","first-page":"1","article-title":"Augmenting Firm Diversification Behavior Prediction with Graph Embeddings.","volume-title":"Complex Networks 2025","author":"NF Sturm","year":"2026"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0344958.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2707","DOI":"10.1111\/twec.13457","article-title":"Matrix completion of world trade: An analysis of interpretability through Shapley values","volume":"46","author":"G Gnecco","year":"2023","journal-title":"World Economy"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref041","unstructured":"Hamilton WL, Ying R, Leskovec J. Representation Learning on Graphs: Methods and Applications. In: 2017. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/ARXIV.1709.05584"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2016.09.028","article-title":"Firms\u2019 knowledge profiles: Mapping patent data with unsupervised learning","volume":"115","author":"A Suominen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Technological Forecasting and Social Change"},{"issue":"52","key":"pone.0344958.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2305414120","article-title":"Unsupervised embedding of trajectories captures the latent structure of scientific migration","volume":"120","author":"D Murray","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gurciullo S, Mikhaylov SJ. Detecting policy preferences and dynamics in the UN general debate with neural word embeddings. In: 2017 International Conference on the Frontiers and Advances in Data Science (FADS), 2017. 74\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/fads.2017.8253197","DOI":"10.1109\/FADS.2017.8253197"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196935","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3634197","article-title":"PageRank-Based Unsupervised Deep Vertex Representations for Anti-Money Laundering Detection","volume":"13","author":"AHB Gezici","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref046","first-page":"32","article-title":"Representation learning in graphs for credit card fraud detection","volume-title":"Representation Learning in Graphs for Credit Card Fraud Detection","author":"R Van Belle","year":"2020"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang D, Lin J, Cui P, Jia Q, Wang Z, Fang Y, et al. A Semi-Supervised Graph Attentive Network for Financial Fraud Detection. In: 2019 IEEE International Conference on Data Mining (ICDM), 2019. 598\u2013607. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/icdm.2019.00070","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDM.2019.00070"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singer U, Guy I, Radinsky K. Node Embedding over Temporal Graphs. In: Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 2019. 4605\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.24963\/ijcai.2019\/640","DOI":"10.24963\/ijcai.2019\/640"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref049","first-page":"855","article-title":"node2vec: Scalable Feature Learning for Networks","volume":"2016","author":"A Grover","year":"2016","journal-title":"KDD"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref050","unstructured":"Lundberg S, Lee SI. A Unified Approach to Interpreting Model Predictions. In: 2017. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/ARXIV.1705.07874v2"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref051","unstructured":"Observatory of Economic Complexity. HS6 rev. 1996 (1998 - 2023). https:\/\/oec.world\/en\/resources\/bulk-download\/international?topic=Trade 2023."},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref052","unstructured":"World Bank. World Development Indicators; 2025. Online. Available from: https:\/\/data.worldbank.org\/"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref053","unstructured":"Instituto dos Mercados P\u00fablicos, do Imobili\u00e1rio e da Constru\u00e7\u00e3o (IMPIC). Portal BASE. https:\/\/www.base.gov.pt\/Base4\/pt\/ 2025."},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-025-00543-z","article-title":"High earnings through firm influence: the role of hierarchical structures in public procurement","volume":"14","author":"NF Sturm","year":"2025","journal-title":"EPJ Data Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0344958.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9957.1965.tb00050.x","article-title":"Trade liberalisation and \u201crevealed\u201d comparative advantage","volume":"33","author":"B Balassa","year":"1965","journal-title":"Manchester School"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0344958.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025011","DOI":"10.1088\/2632-072X\/accb35","article-title":"The different structure of economic ecosystems at the scales of companies and countries","volume":"4","author":"D Laudati","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Phys Complex"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1080\/00343404.2022.2106362","article-title":"The dark side of the geography of innovation: relatedness, complexity and regional inequality in Europe","volume":"59","author":"FL Pinheiro","year":"2022","journal-title":"Regional Studies"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0344958.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1111\/pirs.12215","article-title":"Neighbour regions as the source of new industries","volume":"96","author":"R Boschma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Papers in Regional Science"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1093\/icc\/dtu012","article-title":"Relatedness and technological change in cities: the rise and fall of technological knowledge in US metropolitan areas from 1981 to 2010","volume":"24","author":"R Boschma","year":"2014","journal-title":"Industrial and Corporate Change"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0344958.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1177\/0149206311432640","article-title":"Knowledge, Networks, and Knowledge Networks: A Review and Research Agenda","volume":"38","author":"C Phelps","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Management"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0344958.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1007\/s10887-011-9071-4","article-title":"The network structure of economic output","volume":"16","author":"R Hausmann","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Econ Growth"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/pirs.12567","article-title":"Explaining the dynamics of relatedness: The role of co\u2010location and complexity","volume":"100","author":"S Juh\u00e1sz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Papers in Regional Science"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref063","unstructured":"Hidalgo CA, Stojkoski V. The Theory of Economic Complexity. 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/ARXIV.2506.18829v6"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0344958.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1475","DOI":"10.1109\/TCBBIO.2026.3683906","article-title":"Optimal Reconstruction of Graph Evolution History Under Preferential Attachment Model","volume":"23","author":"E Kudret","year":"2026","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Comput Biol Bioinform"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref065","article-title":"Network growth under opportunistic attachment","volume":"10","author":"CES Mattsson","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl Netw Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0344958.ref066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1093\/jeg\/lbv024","article-title":"On firms\u2019 product space evolution: the role of firm and local product relatedness","volume":"16","author":"A Lo Turco","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Econ Geogr"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamilton WL, Leskovec J, Jurafsky D. Diachronic Word Embeddings Reveal Statistical Laws of Semantic Change. In: Proceedings of the 54th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers), 2016. 1489\u2013501. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/p16-1141","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/P16-1141"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0344958.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1002\/bs.3830070216","article-title":"The procrustes program: Producing direct rotation to test a hypothesized factor structure","volume":"7","author":"JR Hurley","year":"2007","journal-title":"Syst Res"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0344958.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1423","DOI":"10.1086\/688176","article-title":"Text-Based Network Industries and Endogenous Product Differentiation","volume":"124","author":"G Hoberg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Political Economy"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1177\/01708406241286287","article-title":"Clearing Up Confusion: The effect of outlier similarity on IPO underpricing","volume":"47","author":"P Gouvard","year":"2024","journal-title":"Organization Studies"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jo S, Kim T, Park J, Yu J, Bae H, Chung J. A BERT-based denoising framework for inter-company similarity analysis using 10-K reports. 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.5798353","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.5798353"},{"issue":"06","key":"pone.0344958.ref072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2209","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219622023500694","article-title":"Company2Vec \u2014 German company embeddings based on corporate websites","volume":"23","author":"C Gerling","year":"2023","journal-title":"International Journal of Information Technology & Decision Making"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ethayarajh K. How Contextual are Contextualized Word Representations? Comparing the Geometry of BERT, ELMo, and GPT-2 Embeddings. In: Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP), 2019. 55\u201365. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/d19-1006","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/D19-1006"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0344958.ref074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123008","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/11\/12\/123008","article-title":"Accurate and diverse recommendations via eliminating redundant correlations","volume":"11","author":"T Zhou","year":"2009","journal-title":"New J Phys"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0344958.ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2432","DOI":"10.1002\/smj.3726","article-title":"Investors\u2019 attention and the paradox of technologically related diversification: Evidence of stock market mispricing","volume":"46","author":"R Morandi Stagni","year":"2025","journal-title":"Strategic Management Journal"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0344958.ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3735","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.2016.2693","article-title":"Conglomerate industry choice and product language","volume":"64","author":"G Hoberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Management Science"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1111\/joms.12393","article-title":"Does the Diversification\u2013Firm Performance Relationship Change Over Time? A Meta\u2010Analytical Review","volume":"56","author":"M Schommer","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Management Studies"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0344958.ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1177\/014920639502100510","article-title":"A Refinement of the Entropy Measure of Firm Diversification: Toward Definitional and Computational Accuracy","volume":"21","author":"SP Raghunathan","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of Management"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10189","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-89519-3","article-title":"Entropic measure unveils country competitiveness and product specialization in the World trade web","volume":"11","author":"G Teza","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0344958.ref080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/s00191-007-0081-5","article-title":"Export variety and the economic performance of countries","volume":"18","author":"PP Saviotti","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Evol Econ"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0344958.ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.1080\/00343404.2019.1577552","article-title":"Technological coherence and the adaptive resilience of regional economies","volume":"53","author":"S Rocchetta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Regional Studies"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0344958.ref082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1944-8287.2009.01034.x","article-title":"Related variety, trade linkages, and regional growth in Italy","volume":"85","author":"R Boschma","year":"2009","journal-title":"Economic Geography"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0344958.ref083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1080\/00343400601120296","article-title":"Related variety, unrelated variety and regional economic growth","volume":"41","author":"K Frenken","year":"2007","journal-title":"Regional Studies"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0344958.ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.00205","article-title":"hdbscan: Hierarchical density based clustering","volume":"2","author":"L McInnes","year":"2017","journal-title":"JOSS"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref085","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McInnes L, Healy J, Melville J. UMAP: Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection for Dimension Reduction. In: 2018. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/ARXIV.1802.03426v3","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.00861"},{"issue":"264","key":"pone.0344958.ref086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.2307\/2281082","article-title":"Errata: Use of Ranks in One-Criterion Variance Analysis","volume":"48","author":"WH Kruskal","year":"1953","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref087","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x","article-title":"Controlling the False Discovery Rate: A Practical and Powerful Approach to Multiple Testing","volume":"57","author":"Y Benjamini","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B: Statistical Methodology"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0344958.ref088","article-title":"Mice: Multivariate imputation by chained equations in R","volume":"45","author":"v Buuren S","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref089","volume-title":"Classification and regression trees","author":"L Breiman","year":"1984"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random Forests","volume":"45","author":"L Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Machine Learning"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen T, Guestrin C. In: Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, 2016. 785\u201394. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2939672.2939785","DOI":"10.1145\/2939672.2939785"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref092","unstructured":"Buitinck L, Louppe G, Blondel M, Pedregosa F, Mueller A, Grisel O. API design for machine learning software: experiences from the scikit-learn project. 2013. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/ARXIV.1309.0238"},{"key":"pone.0344958.ref093","first-page":"59","volume-title":"Designing Smart Specialization Policy: Relatedness, Unrelatedness, or What?","author":"R Boschma","year":"2025"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0344958.ref094","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1454","DOI":"10.1080\/00343404.2021.1988552","article-title":"Combining technological relatedness and sectoral specialization for improving prioritization in Smart Specialisation","volume":"56","author":"A Panori","year":"2021","journal-title":"Regional Studies"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0344958.ref095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1080\/00130095.2025.2456731","article-title":"Turning Technological Relatedness into Industrial Strategy: The Productivity Effects of Smart Specialization in Europe","volume":"101","author":"GL Conte","year":"2025","journal-title":"Economic Geography"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0344958","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T17:30:27Z","timestamp":1792690227000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0344958"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Dariusz","family":"Siudak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Lodz University of Technology: Politechnika Lodzka","place":["POLAND"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0344958","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]]}}}