{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T18:04:54Z","timestamp":1790186694004,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790121600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    The emergence of the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b in North America, beginning in February 2022, has highlighted the dynamic, unpredictable, and regionally variable risk of infections. Studies are needed to assess the spatiotemporal clustering of HPAI H5 at the interface between wild waterfowl and commercial poultry to better understand and mitigate this risk. Publicly available data on HPAI H5 detections in wild birds and commercial poultry from January 2022 to January 2026 were analyzed at the county level. Retrospective space-time permutation models were used to identify and scan for clusters with higher-than-expected detection rates. A total of 17,091 HPAI H5 detections were reported in wild birds across 1,467 county-level locations. Four species, Mallard (\n                    <jats:italic>Anas platyrhynchos<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) (2,848 detections, 16.66%), Canada goose (\n                    <jats:italic>Branta canadensis<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) (1,496, 8.75%), Green-winged teal (\n                    <jats:italic>Anas carolinensis<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) (1,364, 7.98%), and Snow goose (\n                    <jats:italic>Anser caerulescens<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) (1,084, 6.34%), accounted for 39.73% of detections. In commercial poultry, 532 outbreaks in turkey operations, 148 outbreaks in table-egg layer operations, 99 outbreaks in broiler chicken operations, and 89 outbreaks in commercial duck operations were reported, respectively. Several spillover events followed an east-to-west expansion. In early 2022, mallard detections preceded outbreaks in Northeast egg-layer and duck farms, while snow goose detections in the Upper Midwest coincided with turkey farm outbreaks. In the Pacific and Mountain West during summer 2022, detections in Canada geese overlapped with turkey farm outbreaks. A resurgence occurred in the Midwest (2025), with snow and Canada goose detections overlapping severe outbreaks in turkey and layer flocks. Additionally, in the Upper Midwest, Canada goose and mallard detections overlapped with outbreaks in commercial duck farms during fall-winter 2025. The study findings demonstrate distinct vector-based transmission dynamics of HPAI H5 at the wild waterfowl-poultry interface. Farm biosecurity strategies must adapt to these recurrent, vector-specific risks.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0345354","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T17:22:28Z","timestamp":1790184148000},"page":"e0345354","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Spatiotemporal clustering of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 at the wild waterfowl-poultry interface: Vector-specific spillover risks in the U.S., 2022\u20132025"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2751-3677","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Csaba","family":"Varga","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign","place":["Urbana, Illinois, United States of America"],"department":["Department of Pathobiology"]},{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee","place":["Knoxville, Tennessee, United States of America"],"department":["Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0345354.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-0346-8_7","article-title":"A Brief Introduction to Avian Influenza Virus","volume":"2123","author":"E Spackman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Methods Mol Biol"},{"issue":"15","key":"pone.0345354.ref002","article-title":"Ecology and evolution of avian influenza viruses","volume":"34","author":"Y Bi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr Biol"},{"issue":"8096","key":"pone.0345354.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-09737-x","article-title":"Ecology and spread of the North American H5N1 epizootic","volume":"649","author":"L Damodaran","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0345354.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10050630","article-title":"Avian Influenza in Wild Birds and Poultry: Dissemination Pathways, Monitoring Methods, and Virus Ecology","volume":"10","author":"A Blagodatski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0345354.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/s44185-025-00114-5","article-title":"The role of wild birds in the global highly pathogenic avian influenza H5 panzootic, 2020\u20132023","volume":"5","author":"M Couty","year":"2026","journal-title":"NPJ Biodivers"},{"issue":"8034","key":"pone.0345354.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-07849-4","article-title":"Spillover of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus to dairy cattle","volume":"634","author":"LC Caserta","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0345354.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1818","DOI":"10.3390\/v16121818","article-title":"Genotypic Clustering of H5N1 Avian Influenza Viruses in North America Evaluated by Ordination Analysis","volume":"16","author":"P Tawidian","year":"2024","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"pone.0345354.ref008","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). 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