{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T01:53:36Z","timestamp":1788227616971,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776211200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    To identify behavioural changes indicative for acute pain in dogs that are recognized by their owners and the wording used to describe these, we asked owners of 51 dogs treated at the Small Animal Clinic of Utrecht University, to document and video tape observed behavioural changes and estimate their dog\u2019s level of pain within the first week after clinical discharge. Quantitative data was tested with logistic regression analysis for the predictability of certain behavioural changes to occur at higher owner-estimated pain scores. Owner-recorded videos were analysed independently by three veterinarians to provide a professional reference perspective. Free text entries from participants were analysed qualitatively and the wording used by owners whose dogs were deemed in pain according to the veterinary video evaluation, was extracted. We found that the most often reported behavioural changes on the day of discharge, and on the two days thereafter were: changes in walking (72.1%\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200944\/61), playing with an object (70.5%,\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200943\/61) and playing with the owner (68.9%,\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200942\/61). The empirical data indicated a decrease in, e.g., playing behaviour, explorative behaviour and eating. Logistic regression analyses showed a significant association between owner-estimated pain scores and behavioural changes for these tested items. No correlation was found between pain estimation by the veterinarians and the dog owners. The qualitative text analysis of entries from owners whose dogs were deemed in pain, provided insight into wording used to describe pain-related behavioural changes by owners, that may be used in the context of developing an owner-directed acute pain scoring instrument. Such an instrument is needed to help owners recognize and correctly interpret pain-induced behavioural changes, to ensure adequate pain management and animal welfare after clinical discharge.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0345418","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T17:22:21Z","timestamp":1776273741000},"page":"e0345418","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Acute pain sign recognition by dog owners in a home setting"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1698-0712","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Silvia","family":"Gardeweg","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chiara","family":"Valtolina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abraham","family":"Calero Rodriguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0824-8089","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ineke","family":"van Herwijnen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0345418.ref001","volume-title":"The skin senses","author":"R Melzack","year":"1968"},{"issue":"619","key":"pone.0345418.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abj7360","article-title":"Brain circuits for pain and its treatment","volume":"13","author":"N Mercer Lindsay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Transl Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0345418.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1097\/j.pain.0000000000001384","article-title":"Chronic pain as a symptom or a disease: the IASP classification of chronic pain for the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11)","volume":"160","author":"RD Treede","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pain"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0345418.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpain.2017.02.421","article-title":"The ACTTION-APS-AAPM Pain Taxonomy (AAAPT) multidimensional approach to classifying acute pain conditions","volume":"18","author":"ML Kent","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Pain"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0345418.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2277","DOI":"10.1111\/pme.12751","article-title":"The incidence and severity of postoperative pain following inpatient surgery","volume":"16","author":"A Buvanendran","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pain Med"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0345418.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1859","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1526-4637.2010.00983.x","article-title":"Causes and consequences of inadequate management of acute pain","volume":"11","author":"R Sinatra","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pain Med"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0345418.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1830","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2008.04.009","article-title":"Standards of care for acute and chronic musculoskeletal pain: the Bone and Joint Decade (2000-2010)","volume":"89","author":"NE Walsh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"issue":"43","key":"pone.0345418.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1807862115","article-title":"Distinct facial expressions represent pain and pleasure across cultures","volume":"115","author":"C Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0345418.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1080\/17415349.2017.1395304","article-title":"Pain in birds: a review for veterinary nurses","volume":"33","author":"A Malik","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet Nurs J"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0345418.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"954","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2003.223.954","article-title":"Animal behavior case of the month","volume":"223","author":"P Pryor","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0345418.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/vetreccr-2017-000501","article-title":"Human\u2010directed aggressive behaviour as the main presenting sign in dogs subsequently diagnosed with diskospondylitis","volume":"5","author":"N Affenzeller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet Rec Case Rep"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref012","first-page":"53","article-title":"Pain Assessment","author":"P Dobromylskyj","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pain Management in Animals. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2020.07.013","article-title":"The development and use of facial grimace scales for pain measurement in animals","volume":"116","author":"JS Mogil","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1177\/1754073912451503","article-title":"Facial expression in nonhuman animals","volume":"5","author":"BM Waller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Emot Rev"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2016.00100","article-title":"The assessment of facial expressions in piglets undergoing tail docking and castration: toward the development of the piglet grimace scale","volume":"3","author":"P Di Giminiani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00302","article-title":"Inter-rater reliability of the feline grimace scale in cats undergoing dental extractions","volume":"7","author":"R Watanabe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0345418.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1538\/expanim.24-0010","article-title":"The grimace scale: a useful tool for assessing pain in laboratory animals","volume":"73","author":"K Onuma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Exp Anim"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0345418.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19128","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-55693-8","article-title":"Facial expressions of pain in cats: the development and validation of a Feline Grimace Scale","volume":"9","author":"MC Evangelista","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0345418.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32331","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-15741-y","article-title":"Automated analysis of emotional expressions in dogs based on geometric morphometrics","volume":"15","author":"G Martvel","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref020","article-title":"Development of the short-form Glasgow Composite Measure Pain Scale (CMPS-SF) and derivation of an analgesic intervention score","volume":"1","author":"J Reid","year":"2007","journal-title":"Anim Welf Suppl"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0345418.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaa.2020.11.007","article-title":"A survey study on the recognition and treatment of pain in dogs and cats by Slovenian veterinarians","volume":"48","author":"K Tomsi\u010d","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet Anaesth Analg"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0345418.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1278","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.233.8.1278","article-title":"Ability of the canine brief pain inventory to detect response to treatment in dogs with osteoarthritis","volume":"233","author":"DC Brown","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0345418.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.70.6.727","article-title":"Psychometric testing of the Helsinki chronic pain index by completion of a questionnaire in Finnish by owners of dogs with chronic signs of pain caused by osteoarthritis","volume":"70","author":"AK Hielm-Bj\u00f6rkman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0345418.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0058125","article-title":"Evaluation of construct and criterion validity for the \u201cLiverpool Osteoarthritis in Dogs\u201d (LOAD) clinical metrology instrument and comparison to two other instruments","volume":"8","author":"MB Walton","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0345418.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1038\/laban0607-43","article-title":"Use of behavior analysis to recognize pain in small mammals","volume":"36","author":"J Mayer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lab Anim (NY)"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2020.105198","article-title":"Could it be osteoarthritis? How dog owners and veterinary surgeons describe identifying canine osteoarthritis in a general practice setting","volume":"185","author":"Z Belshaw","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jveb.2023.02.006","article-title":"Dog owners\u2019 recognition of pain-related behavioral changes in their dogs","volume":"62","author":"A Demirtas","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Vet Behav"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0345418.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0305925","article-title":"Qualitative behavioral assessment of dogs with acute pain","volume":"19","author":"F Zanusso","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0345418.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.14856","article-title":"Questionnaire-based analysis of owner-reported scratching and pain signs in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels screened for Chiari-like Malformation and Syringomyelia","volume":"32","author":"CR Sparks","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Vet Intern Med"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0345418.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/jsap.12200","article-title":"Guidelines for recognition, assessment and treatment of pain","volume":"55","author":"K Mathews","year":"2014","journal-title":"J of Small Animal Practice"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0345418.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1763","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000002864","article-title":"Correlation coefficients: appropriate use and interpretation","volume":"126","author":"P Schober","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anesth Analg"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0345418.ref032","first-page":"14","article-title":"Data analysis in qualitative research: a brief guide to using nvivo","volume":"3","author":"L Wong","year":"2008","journal-title":"Malays Fam Phys: Off J Acad Fam Phys Malays"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0345418.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1186\/s43058-021-00174-1","article-title":"Pragmatic approaches to analyzing qualitative data for implementation science: an introduction","volume":"2","author":"S Ramanadhan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Implement Sci Commun"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref034","article-title":"Qualitative methods in health and health services research.","volume-title":"Qualitative Research in Health Care","author":"N Mays","year":"1996"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2018.07.010","article-title":"Assessment of quality of life and chronic pain in dogs","volume":"239","author":"Z Belshaw","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet J"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref036","article-title":"ICT and the research process: issues around the compatibility of technology with qualitative data analysis","author":"KA Roberts","year":"2002","journal-title":"Forum Qualit Sozialforschung"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0345418.ref037","article-title":"Inductive content analysis: A guide for beginning qualitative researchers","volume":"23","author":"DF Vears","year":"2022","journal-title":"Focus Health Prof Educ \u2013 Multidiscip J"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref038","article-title":"From data management to actionable findings: a five-phase process of qualitative data analysis","volume":"22","author":"AJ Bingham","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Quali Methods"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref039","first-page":"133","article-title":"Deductive and inductive approaches to qualitative data analysis","volume-title":"Analyzing and interpreting qualitative data","author":"A Bingham","year":"2021"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0345418.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0252417","article-title":"Development of the Bristol Rabbit Pain Scale (BRPS): A multidimensional composite pain scale specific to rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus)","volume":"16","author":"L Benato","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"13","key":"pone.0345418.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2136","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13132136","article-title":"Development and validation of the Unesp-Botucatu Goat Acute Pain Scale","volume":"13","author":"MW Fonseca","year":"2023","journal-title":"Animals (Basel)"},{"issue":"17","key":"pone.0345418.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.148.17.525","article-title":"Development of a behaviour-based scale to measure acute pain in dogs","volume":"148","author":"L Holton","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vet Rec"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0345418.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2133","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2020.2133-2141","article-title":"Urinalysis in dog and cat: a review","volume":"13","author":"SN Yadav","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet World"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0345418.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0292224","article-title":"An ethogram of acute pain behaviors in cats based on expert consensus","volume":"18","author":"S Marangoni","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0345418.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jveb.2011.09.004","article-title":"Perception of dogs\u2019 stress by their owners","volume":"7","author":"C Mariti","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Vet Behav"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.760845","article-title":"Stress-related behaviors in companion dogs exposed to common household noises, and owners\u2019 interpretations of their dogs\u2019 behaviors","volume":"8","author":"EK Grigg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769112","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.769112","article-title":"Linguistic validation of the canine brief pain inventory (CBPI) for global use","volume":"8","author":"JR Wells","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0345418.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.233.1.109","article-title":"Multicenter, randomized controlled trial of pain-related behaviors following routine neutering in dogs","volume":"233","author":"AE Wagner","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4103\/sja.SJA_203_17","article-title":"Guidelines for developing, translating, and validating a questionnaire in perioperative and pain medicine","volume":"11","author":"S Tsang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Saudi J Anaesth"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0345418.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.3138\/jvme.37.4.358","article-title":"Effects of a pilot training program on veterinary students\u2019 pain knowledge, attitude, and assessment skills","volume":"37","author":"PM Mich","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Vet Med Educ"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0345418.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1111\/jsap.13500","article-title":"Identification of canine osteoarthritis using an owner-reported questionnaire and treatment monitoring using functional mobility tests","volume":"63","author":"A Wright","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Small Anim Pract"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1165340","DOI":"10.3389\/fpain.2023.1165340","article-title":"Pain sensitivity differs between dog breeds but not in the way veterinarians believe","volume":"4","author":"RMP Caddiell","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Pain Res (Lausanne)"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0345418.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.14-0602","article-title":"Gabapentin as an adjuvant for postoperative pain management in dogs undergoing mastectomy","volume":"77","author":"GC Crociolli","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Vet Med Sci"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0345418.ref054","first-page":"952","article-title":"A review of pre-appointment medications to reduce fear and anxiety in dogs and cats at veterinary visits","volume":"62","author":"A Erickson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Can Vet J"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0345418.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.21.03.0167","article-title":"Effects of a single dose of orally administered gabapentin in dogs during a veterinary visit: a double-blinded, placebo-controlled study","volume":"260","author":"OO Stollar","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1374858","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2024.1374858","article-title":"How does chronic pain impact the lives of dogs: an investigation of factors that are associated with pain using the Animal Welfare Assessment Grid","volume":"11","author":"R Malkani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref057","article-title":"2022 WSAVA guidelines for the recognition, assessment and treatment of pain","author":"BP Monteiro","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Small Anim Pract"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0345418.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.3138\/jvme.0318-035r1","article-title":"Veterinary behavior: assessment of veterinarians\u2019 training, experience, and comfort level with cases","volume":"47","author":"LR Kogan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Vet Med Educ"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0345418.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.72.5.601","article-title":"Reliability and validity of a visual analogue scale used by owners to measure chronic pain attributable to osteoarthritis in their dogs","volume":"72","author":"AK Hielm-Bj\u00f6rkman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0345418.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2154","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2005.66.2154","article-title":"Application of a scaling model to establish and validate an interval level pain scale for assessment of acute pain in dogs","volume":"66","author":"CM Morton","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am J Vet Res"},{"key":"pone.0345418.ref061","volume-title":"Colorado State University Canine Acute Pain Scale","author":"PUS Hellyer","year":"2015"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0345418","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T17:22:28Z","timestamp":1776273748000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0345418"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Brittany N.","family":"Florkiewicz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0345418","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]]}}}