{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,19]],"date-time":"2026-10-19T09:59:55Z","timestamp":1792403995150,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776384000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\">\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The global, national and subnational geographical and temporal distribution of reported Legionnaires\u2019 disease is extremely heterogeneous, and it is unknown to what extent this accurately reflects the variation in true disease incidence. We studied how diagnostic testing intensity varied across Danish municipalities between 2014 and 2022, how it influenced epidemiological surveillance, and how testing-adjusted reporting can be used to improve the study of disease incidence and its determinants.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec002\">\n                    <jats:title>Methods and findings<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We used data from the clinical Danish Microbiology Database and the Epidemiological Surveillance System and considered a tentative causal model of how\n                      <jats:italic>Legionella<\/jats:italic>\n                      infections give rise to the observed Legionnaires\u2019 disease surveillance data. We fitted spatio-temporal models using an approximate Bayesian inference for latent Gaussian models (INLA), providing probabilistic estimates. These allowed us to identify areas of increased risk and spatio-temporal interaction.\u00a0Our assessment of the Legionnaires\u2019 disease testing intensity in Denmark showed considerable spatio-temporal variation across the country. The estimated municipal annual testing intensity ranged from 128 to 2,446 persons receiving at least one\n                      <jats:italic>Legionella<\/jats:italic>\n                      urinary antigen or PCR test per 100,000 inhabitants. The median increased between 2014 and 2022 steadily from 275 to 620 tested persons per 100,000 inhabitants, reflecting an upward trend. The proportion of tested persons with age over 70 increased from 44.8% to 56.4%. Increasing testing intensity leads to higher case reporting, until testing intensity reaches approximately 1000\u20131200 tested persons per 100 000 inhabitants. The estimated municipal annual testing-adjusted case reporting ranged from 1.4 to 12.0 per 100 000 inhabitants. The median fluctuated over the study period between 2.5 (range 1.4\u20136.2) in 2014 and 5.2 (range 1.5\u201311.7) in 2022 with a flat overall time effect.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec003\">\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We obtained estimates of the spatio-temporal variation of Legionnaires\u2019 disease among Danish municipalities. We quantified the positive effect of testing intensity on Legionnaires\u2019 disease reporting and found a threshold of annually testing slightly over 1% of the population above which the yield of new cases does not further increase. Despite limitations and possible bias, our study of testing-adjusted case reporting suggests that no substantial increase in Legionnaires\u2019 disease has occurred over the nine-year study period. Instead, case ascertainment by physicians has improved considerably through increased\n                      <jats:italic>Legionella<\/jats:italic>\n                      testing, particularly in elderly patients. Insight in the variation of testing intensity and its effect on Legionnaires\u2019 disease reporting can be used to improve guidance for Legionnaires\u2019 disease diagnosis, to better study determinants of Legionnaires\u2019 disease, and ultimately to improve Legionnaires\u2019 disease prevention and control.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0346580","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T17:58:56Z","timestamp":1776448736000},"page":"e0346580","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Diagnostic testing intensity for Legionnaires\u2019 disease: Spatio-temporal assessment and its effect on surveillance case reporting, Denmark, 2014\u20132022"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7487-9439","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Emmanuel","family":"Robesyn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"S\u00f8ren Anker","family":"Uldum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karsten Dalsgaard","family":"Bjerre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charlotte","family":"Kjels\u00f8","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marc","family":"Struelens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6525-1861","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Cecilia","family":"St\u00e5lsby Lundborg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9709-356X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Steen","family":"Ethelberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christel","family":"Faes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]]},"reference":[{"issue":"22","key":"pone.0346580.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM197712012972201","article-title":"Legionnaires\u2019 disease: description of an epidemic of pneumonia","volume":"297","author":"DW Fraser","year":"1977","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0346580.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1907","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19031907","article-title":"Global Perspective of Legionella Infection in Community-Acquired Pneumonia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies","volume":"19","author":"FF Graham","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0346580.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1186\/s13613-024-01252-y","article-title":"Severe Legionnaires\u2019 disease","volume":"14","author":"R Jordi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann Intens Care"},{"issue":"16","key":"pone.0346580.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2018.23.16.17-00454","article-title":"Impact of infectious diseases on population health using incidence-based disability-adjusted life years (DALYs): results from the Burden of Communicable Diseases in Europe study, European Union and European Economic Area countries, 2009 to 2013","volume":"23","author":"A Cassini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Euro Surveill"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0346580.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2701.191198","article-title":"Economic burden of Legionnaires\u2019 disease, United States, 2014","volume":"27","author":"M Baker-Goering","year":"2021","journal-title":"Emerg Infect\u00a0Dis"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0346580.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1454","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00089113","article-title":"Legionnaires\u2019 disease in Europe: all quiet on the eastern front?","volume":"42","author":"European Legionnaires\u2019 Disease Surveillance Network","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur Respir J"},{"key":"pone.0346580.ref007","unstructured":"European Commission. 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