{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,3]],"date-time":"2026-05-03T02:07:20Z","timestamp":1777774040067,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777420800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NSERC Discovery Grant","award":["RGPIN\/04840-2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RGPIN\/04840-2020"]}]},{"name":"NSERC PGS-D","award":["NA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA"]}]},{"name":"BrightRed Student Research Award","award":["NA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\">\n                    <jats:title>Aim<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To examine the extent to which qualitative methods have been used in motor imagery research, and to characterize how these approaches have been applied.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec002\">\n                    <jats:title>Design<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Scoping review conducted in accordance with JBI methodology.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec003\">\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Eligible articles included peer-reviewed literature investigating motor imagery using qualitative methods. Screening and data extraction were conducted in Covidence. Data were synthesized descriptively and presented in tabular form.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec004\">\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Thirty-nine articles met the inclusion criteria. Most were situated in sport psychology (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200923; 59%), with athletes comprising the most frequently studied population (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200920; 51.3%). Over half of the qualitative studies (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200920; 51.3%) did not report a specific research design. The predominant focus was on how specific populations use motor imagery (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200927; 69.2%), while only one study (2.6%) investigated learning through motor imagery.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec005\">\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion and Impact<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The literature is heavily weighted toward sport psychology and understanding athletes\u2019 use of imagery, with limited attention to how motor imagery is experienced in experimental settings. Notably, few studies have examined the process of imagery \u2013 particularly its role in learning \u2013 within laboratory contexts. Given that such laboratory research often forms the foundation for the application of motor imagery in healthcare, including rehabilitation, the absence of qualitative insights into participants\u2019 experiences represents an important gap. Clearer reporting of qualitative designs and more in-depth exploration of motor imagery experiences are needed to ensure that applications, particularly in rehabilitation, are grounded in the perspectives of those engaging in motor imagery practice.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0348064","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T17:35:06Z","timestamp":1777484106000},"page":"e0348064","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Mapping qualitative research on motor imagery: A scoping review"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-5693-8508","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Juliet M.","family":"Rowe","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Theresa C.","family":"Gaughan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7477-0049","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Shaun G.","family":"Boe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0348064.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.2001.0832","article-title":"Neural simulation of action: a unifying mechanism for motor cognition","volume":"14","author":"M Jeannerod","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.00394","article-title":"Motor Imagery Practice and Cognitive Processes","volume":"11","author":"A Moran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2018.10.030","article-title":"Movement related sensory feedback is not necessary for learning to execute a motor skill","volume":"359","author":"TGJ Ingram","year":"2019","journal-title":"Behav Brain Res"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348064.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00257.2010","article-title":"Motor learning without doing: trial-by-trial improvement in motor performance during mental training","volume":"104","author":"R Gentili","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awr077","article-title":"Mental practice with motor imagery in stroke recovery: randomized controlled trial of efficacy","volume":"134","author":"M Ietswaart","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348064.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2004.10.002","article-title":"Effects of mental practice on affected limb use and function in chronic stroke","volume":"86","author":"SJ Page","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0348064.ref007","article-title":"Mental practice for treating upper extremity deficits in individuals with hemiparesis after stroke","volume":"5","author":"RE Barclay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033493","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.1033493","article-title":"Imagining the way forward: A review of contemporary motor imagery theory","volume":"16","author":"AJ Hurst","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Hum Neurosci"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348064.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1037\/xhp0000148","article-title":"Characterizing skill acquisition through motor imagery with no prior physical practice","volume":"42","author":"SN Kraeutner","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2024.106219","article-title":"Unlike overt movement, motor imagery cannot update internal models","volume":"181","author":"JM Rowe","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Cogn"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348064.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1007\/s00426-025-02138-9","article-title":"Even with exposure to errors, motor imagery cannot update internal models","volume":"89","author":"JM Rowe","year":"2025","journal-title":"Psychol Res"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.2011.07938.x","article-title":"The modulation of motor cortex excitability during motor imagery depends on imagery quality: imagery quality and corticomotor excitability","volume":"35","author":"F Lebon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur J Neurosci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348064.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1080\/00222895.2020.1774491","article-title":"Probing the Effect of Block Duration on Corticospinal Excitability during Motor Imagery Performance","volume":"53","author":"J Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Mot Behav"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2018.08.003","article-title":"Neural correlates of action: Comparing meta-analyses of imagery, observation, and execution","volume":"94","author":"RM Hardwick","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348064.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21335","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-78120-9","article-title":"Leveraging the effector independent nature of motor imagery when it is paired with physical practice","volume":"10","author":"SN Kraeutner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1162\/NECO_a_00838","article-title":"Electroencephalographic motor imagery brain connectivity analysis for BCI: A review","volume":"28","author":"M Hamedi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neural Comput"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2014.09.001","article-title":"Motor imagery-based brain activity parallels that of motor execution: evidence from magnetic source imaging of cortical oscillations","volume":"1588","author":"S Kraeutner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Res"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0348064.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.13900","article-title":"Experience modulates motor imagery-based brain activity","volume":"47","author":"SN Kraeutner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur J Neurosci"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4684-2571-0_2","article-title":"Imagery and Thinking: Covert Functioning of the Motor System","volume-title":"Consciousness and Self-Regulation","author":"FJ McGuigan","year":"1978"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0167.52.2.126","article-title":"Qualitative research in counseling psychology: A primer on research paradigms and philosophy of science","volume":"52","author":"JG Ponterotto","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Couns Psychol"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0348064.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0309473","article-title":"The Effect of Internal and external imagery on learning badminton long serve skill: The role of visual and audiovisual imagery","volume":"19","author":"F Parimi","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1495","DOI":"10.3390\/app13031495","article-title":"Sonification of motor imagery in the basketball jump shot: Effect on muscle activity amplitude","volume":"13","author":"H Ramezanzade","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl Sci (Basel)"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0348064.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1794","DOI":"10.3758\/s13414-016-1112-9","article-title":"Is there symmetry in motor imagery? Exploring different versions of the mental chronometry paradigm","volume":"78","author":"SF Dahm","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atten Percept Psychophys"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348064.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archger.2013.09.003","article-title":"Assessment of mental chronometry (MC) in healthy subjects","volume":"58","author":"J Greiner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch Gerontol Geriatr"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348064.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1097\/JES.0b013e31820ac5e0","article-title":"Measuring motor imagery using psychometric, behavioral, and psychophysiological tools","volume":"39","author":"C Collet","year":"2011","journal-title":"Exerc Sport Sci Rev"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0348064.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1362","DOI":"10.1037\/xhp0001064","article-title":"Imagined movement accuracy is strongly associated with drivers of overt movement error and weakly associated with imagery vividness","volume":"48","author":"TGJ Ingram","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348064.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1097\/01.NPT.0000260567.24122.64","article-title":"The Kinesthetic and Visual Imagery Questionnaire (KVIQ) for assessing motor imagery in persons with physical disabilities: a reliability and construct validity study","volume":"31","author":"F Malouin","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Neurol Phys Ther"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0348064.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1123\/jsep.34.5.621","article-title":"Further validation and development of the movement imagery questionnaire","volume":"34","author":"SE Williams","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Sport Exerc Psychol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0348064.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2021040473","article-title":"An Introduction to Qualitative Inquiry","volume":"32","author":"CR Butler","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Am Soc Nephrol"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref030","volume-title":"Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design","author":"JW Creswell","year":"2024"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.46658\/JBIMES-24-09","article-title":"Scoping reviews","volume-title":"JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis","author":"MD Peters","year":"2024"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0348064.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-0850","article-title":"PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation","volume":"169","author":"AC Tricco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref033","author":"JM Rowe","year":"2025"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348064.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1080\/10413200305391","article-title":"Even More About Exercise Imagery: A Grounded Theory of Exercise Imagery","volume":"15","author":"P Giacobbi","year":"2003","journal-title":"J of Appl Sport Psych"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348064.ref035","article-title":"The Use of Exercise-Related Mental Imagery by Middle-Aged Adults","volume":"4","author":"BH Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0348064.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"888","DOI":"10.1111\/medu.12759","article-title":"Mental imagery and learning: a qualitative study in orthopaedic trauma surgery","volume":"49","author":"EF Ibrahim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Med Educ"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0348064.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2007.12.003","article-title":"Content, characteristics and function of mental images","volume":"9","author":"JF Fournier","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychology of Sport and Exercise"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0348064.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2010.05.006","article-title":"Functions of mental imagery in expert golfers","volume":"11","author":"M Bernier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychology of Sport and Exercise"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348064.ref039","article-title":"A Qualitative Investigation of Meta-Imagery Processes and Imagery Direction among Elite Athletes","volume":"2","author":"T MacIntyre","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348064.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1123\/tsp.26.1.98","article-title":"A Phenomenological Investigation of Gymnasts\u2019 Lived Experience of Imagery","volume":"26","author":"PG Post","year":"2012","journal-title":"The Sport Psychologist"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0348064.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjsem-2022-001409","article-title":"Lived experiences of patients undergoing treatment for traumatic knee injury using integrated psychological training (MOTIFS) in the context of care-as-usual training: a phenomenological interview study","volume":"8","author":"N Cederstr\u00f6m","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348064.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1080\/02640410500128221","article-title":"Imagery use by injured athletes: a qualitative analysis","volume":"24","author":"M Driediger","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Sports Sci"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2186","DOI":"10.3109\/09638288.2011.563816","article-title":"Individual differences in response to phantom limb movement therapy","volume":"33","author":"LP McAvinue","year":"2011","journal-title":"Disabil Rehabil"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref044","author":"CA McDowell","year":"2010"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref045","article-title":"Implementing mental practice in postgraduate surgical training for minimally invasive surgery: A systematic review and thematic analysis","volume":"82","author":"PZ Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Surg Educ"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1111\/ans.18620","article-title":"Mental training in general surgery: a qualitative review of Australian trainee perceptions","volume":"94","author":"S Jolly","year":"2024","journal-title":"ANZ J Surg"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref047","author":"RL Hudson","year":"2023"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref048","author":"N Sieczkowska","year":"2024"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327763","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1327763","article-title":"Repetition and practice. Developing mental training with young violinists: a collaboration","volume":"15","author":"FM Vilnite","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-005-0078-y","article-title":"Kinesthetic, but not visual, motor imagery modulates corticomotor excitability","volume":"168","author":"CM Stinear","year":"2006","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1027\/0269-8803.18.4.190","article-title":"Relationship between visual and kinesthetic imagery, field dependence-independence, and complex motor skills","volume":"18","author":"A Guillot","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Psychophysiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348064.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3751","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-82241-0","article-title":"Characterization of kinesthetic motor imagery compared with visual motor imageries","volume":"11","author":"YJ Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348064.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1097\/XEB.0000000000000062","article-title":"Qualitative research synthesis: methodological guidance for systematic reviewers utilizing meta-aggregation","volume":"13","author":"C Lockwood","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int J Evid Based Healthc"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0348064.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1080\/09638288.2016.1261414","article-title":"Qualitative research in rehabilitation science: opportunities, challenges, and future directions","volume":"40","author":"S VanderKaay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Disabil Rehabil"},{"key":"pone.0348064.ref055","volume-title":"A Concise Introduction to Mixed Methods Research","author":"JW Creswell","year":"2024"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0348064","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T17:35:15Z","timestamp":1777484115000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0348064"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Hesam","family":"Ramezanzade","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0348064","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]]}}}