{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T18:08:18Z","timestamp":1779127698199,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779062400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000272","name":"National Institute for Health and Care Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIHR134638"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIHR134638"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000272","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Life events (LE) are significant experiences (e.g., bereavement, illness, or job loss) that require psychological adjustment and may contribute to mental health disorders like depression and anxiety. Indonesia faces a rising burden of these conditions, yet limited research has explored their relationship with LE in its diverse socio-cultural context. This study examines the associations between LE, depression, and anxiety among adults in Java, Indonesia. It further explores how these associations vary by education, asset ownership (proxy of household wealth) index, and rural-urban area of residence. We used cross-sectional data from the baseline of the Sustainable Treatment and Care for Anxiety and Depression (STAND) 2023 longitudinal household survey. The study included 19,186 participants aged 18 years and older. Depression and anxiety were assessed using the CES-D-10 and GAD-7 scales, respectively, both validated for this population. LE was measured using the Social Readjustment Rating Scale, which categorises exposure into low, moderate, and high-stress levels over the past 12 months. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the associations, adjusting for demographic, socioeconomic, lifestyle, and health-related factors. Both primary models (main effects only) and interaction models (to explore moderation) were fitted. Overall, 4.4% of respondents reported depressive symptoms, and 8.5% reported anxiety. In the primary models, experiencing moderate or high levels of LE was significantly associated with depression (AOR\u2009=\u20093.1, 95% CI: 2.6\u20133.6; AOR\u2009=\u200910.2, 95% CI: 8.0\u201312.9, respectively) and anxiety (AOR\u2009=\u20092.7, 95% CI: 2.5\u20133.1; AOR\u2009=\u20096.5, 95% CI: 5.3\u20138.0, respectively). These associations were moderated by socioeconomic factors. Higher education, a higher asset index, and urban residence were associated with lower odds of anxiety and depression. Interventions should prioritise mental health literacy and access to care, particularly in rural and socioeconomically disadvantaged populations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0348726","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T17:23:02Z","timestamp":1779124982000},"page":"e0348726","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The association between life events and mental health among adults in Java, Indonesia: Investigating the moderating effects by education, asset index, and rural-urban area of residence"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9010-9103","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sri","family":"Idaiani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mashita","family":"Fajri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6734-1940","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Irmansyah","family":"Irmansyah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jonathan","family":"Gibson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jack","family":"Wilkinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Herni","family":"Susanti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Helen","family":"Brooks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Penny","family":"Bee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5931-8692","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Asri","family":"Maharani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]]},"reference":[{"issue":"10513","key":"pone.0348726.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1811","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(25)01917-8","article-title":"Global burden of 292 causes of death in 204 countries and territories and 660 subnational locations, 1990-2023: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2023","volume":"406","author":"GBD 2023 Disease and Injury and Risk Factor Collaborators","year":"2025","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1178632917694350","DOI":"10.1177\/1178632917694350","article-title":"Mental Health Service Provision in Low- and Middle-Income Countries","volume":"10","author":"S Rathod","year":"2017","journal-title":"Health Serv Insights"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref003","author":"Global Burden of Disease Collaborative Network","year":"2021"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-025-07201-8","article-title":"The global burden of depression in adolescents and young adults, 1990-2021: systematic analysis of the global burden of disease study","volume":"25","author":"Z Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12346","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-62381-9","article-title":"Temporal and spatial trend analysis of all-cause depression burden based on Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2019 study","volume":"14","author":"J Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-024-01575-2","article-title":"Trends in the disease burden of anxiety disorders in middle-aged and older adults in China","volume":"12","author":"Z Zhi","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.2147\/IJWH.S494922","article-title":"Bibliometric Analysis and ChatGPT-Assisted Identification of Key Strategies for Improving Primary Maternity Care Based on a Decade of Collective Research","volume":"17","author":"S Maulana","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int J Womens Health"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00538541","article-title":"Recent undesirable life events: their influence on subsequent psychopathology","author":"IM Goodyer","year":"1996","journal-title":"Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348726.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1037\/abn0000028","article-title":"Supplemental material for from loss to loneliness: The relationship between bereavement and depressive symptoms","volume":"124","author":"EI Fried","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Abnorm Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1905348","DOI":"10.1080\/20008198.2021.1905348","article-title":"Grief reactions, depression, and anxiety following job loss: patterns and correlates","volume":"12","author":"JHW van Eersel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur J Psychotraumatol"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2392","DOI":"10.1111\/jocn.13493","article-title":"Violence and depression in a community sample","volume":"26","author":"P Montes\u00f3-Curto","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Clin Nurs"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0348726.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.2190\/VNJC-TQ4W-6T3R-6V9K","article-title":"Stressful events and depressive symptoms among old women and men: a longitudinal study","volume":"51","author":"KL Chou","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int J Aging Hum Dev"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2021.12.030","article-title":"Life events and treatment prognosis for depression: A systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis","volume":"299","author":"JEJ Buckman","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref014","first-page":"375","article-title":"Life stress and mental disorders in the South African stress and health study","volume":"99","author":"S Seedat","year":"2009","journal-title":"S Afr Med J"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348726.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2010.04.027","article-title":"Poverty and common mental disorders in low and middle income countries: A systematic review","volume":"71","author":"C Lund","year":"2010","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.48.1.191","article-title":"The effects of stressful life","volume":"48","author":"RC Kessler","year":"1997","journal-title":"Annu Rev Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13314","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-40196-4","article-title":"Educational attainment and anxiety in middle-aged and older Europeans","volume":"13","author":"A Chlapecka","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.5888\/pcd17.200098","article-title":"Association of Adult Depression With Educational Attainment, Aspirations, and Expectations","volume":"17","author":"AK Cohen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prev Chronic Dis"},{"issue":"18","key":"pone.0348726.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11569","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph191811569","article-title":"Household Wealth and Individuals\u2019 Mental Health: Evidence from the 2012-2018 China Family Panel Survey","volume":"19","author":"R Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.econmod.2020.03.028","article-title":"Household financial vulnerability in Indonesia: Measurement and determinants","volume":"96","author":"S Noerhidajati","year":"2021","journal-title":"Econ Model"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0348726.ref021","first-page":"804","article-title":"The Performance Of A Consumption Augmented Asset Index In Ranking Households And Identifying The Poor","volume":"65","author":"DKL Ngo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Review of Income and Wealth"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0348726.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1111\/roiw.12286","article-title":"Measuring Inequality by Asset Indices: A General Approach with Application to South Africa","volume":"63","author":"M Wittenberg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Review of Income and Wealth"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asieco.2020.101220","article-title":"Asset indexes and the measurement of poverty, inequality and welfare in Southeast Asia","volume":"70","author":"J Deutsch","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Asian Econ"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-10557-7","article-title":"Association between urban environment and mental health in Brussels, Belgium","volume":"21","author":"I Pelgrims","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1905348","DOI":"10.1080\/20008198.2021.1905348","article-title":"Grief reactions, depression, and anxiety following job loss: patterns and correlates","volume":"12","author":"JHW van Eersel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur J Psychotraumatol"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2392","DOI":"10.1111\/jocn.13493","article-title":"Violence and depression in a community sample","volume":"26","author":"P Montes\u00f3-Curto","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Clin Nurs"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0348726.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.2190\/VNJC-TQ4W-6T3R-6V9K","article-title":"Stressful events and depressive symptoms among old women and men: a longitudinal study","volume":"51","author":"KL Chou","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int J Aging Hum Dev"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1186\/s12885-024-12272-z","article-title":"Prevalence of anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder among Omani children and adolescents diagnosed with cancer: a prospective cross-sectional study","volume":"24","author":"LS Al-Saadi","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Cancer"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4366572","DOI":"10.1155\/2024\/4366572","article-title":"Daily Functionality of People with Low Vision: The Impact of Visual Acuity, Depression, and Life Orientation-A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"2024","author":"M Gkioka","year":"2024","journal-title":"Behav Neurol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0348726.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12061233","article-title":"Perceived Stress and Life Stressors in Adults with and without Fibromyalgia","volume":"12","author":"HM Nguyen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomedicines"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-023-05273-y","article-title":"Depressive symptoms and daily living dependence in older adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: the mediating role of positive and negative perceived stress","volume":"24","author":"LA Tai","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2023.05.001","article-title":"Association of mental health and negative life events with weight change in patients with overweight: A cohort study","volume":"334","author":"WJ van den Hout","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-024-05902-0","article-title":"The association among negative life events, alexithymia, and depressive symptoms in a psychosomatic outpatient sample","volume":"24","author":"Y Xie","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-020-00711-x","article-title":"Negative Life Events as Predictors of Anxiety Outcomes: An Examination of Event Type","volume":"49","author":"EP Casline","year":"2021","journal-title":"Res Child Adolesc Psychopathol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1186\/s12909-024-05601-0","article-title":"How do stressful life events affect medical students\u2019 academic adjustment? Parallel mediating mechanisms of anxiety and depression","volume":"24","author":"H-B Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Med Educ"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348726.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.3928\/02793695-20230821-02","article-title":"Psychosocial Factors Associated With Perinatal Anxiety and Perinatal Depression Among Adolescents: A Rapid Review","volume":"62","author":"OA Ojeleye","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0348726.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-011-9689-8","article-title":"Life Events and Depressive Symptoms in African American Adolescents: Do Ecological Domains and Timing of Life Events Matter?","volume":"41","author":"YM Sanchez","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Youth Adolesc"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0348726.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0298385","article-title":"Experiences of trauma and psychometric properties of the Life Events Checklist among adults in Uganda","volume":"19","author":"Z Morawej","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.21776\/ub.mps.2024.0010.01.909","article-title":"Trait rumination sebagai moderator antara stressful life events dengan depresi peripartum","volume":"10","author":"C Pratama","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mediapsi"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2174\/17450179-v18-e2207010","article-title":"Depression among Older Adults in Indonesia: Prevalence, Role of Chronic Conditions and Other Associated Factors","volume":"18","author":"YS Handajani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743053","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.743053","article-title":"Depression and Psychological Stress Among Health Workers in Remote Areas in Indonesia","volume":"10","author":"S Idaiani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/s44202-023-00112-3","article-title":"Impact of natural disasters on mental health and welfare: the case of the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake","volume":"4","author":"MS Trisilia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Discov Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348726.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2010.04.027","article-title":"Poverty and common mental disorders in low and middle income countries: A systematic review","volume":"71","author":"C Lund","year":"2010","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348726.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1007\/s40471-017-0107-y","article-title":"Social epidemiology and global mental health: Expanding the evidence from high-income to low- and middle-income countries","volume":"4","author":"J Maselko","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr Epidemiol Rep"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0348726.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2018.11.008","article-title":"Urban\u2013Rural Differences in Older Adult Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Comparative Studies","volume":"56","author":"J Purtle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Prev Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0348726.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2024-095110","article-title":"Exploring the mediating role of depression and anxiety in the relationship between social and biological factors and quality of life in Indonesia: a structural equation modelling approach","volume":"15","author":"H Susanti","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref047","volume-title":"Depression and other common mental disorders: global health estimates","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2017"},{"issue":"14","key":"pone.0348726.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1623","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0258(19980730)17:14<1623::AID-SIM871>3.0.CO;2-S","article-title":"A simple method of sample size calculation for linear and logistic regression","volume":"17","author":"FY Hsieh","year":"1998","journal-title":"Stat Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348726.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-3797(18)30622-6","article-title":"Screening for Depression in Well Older Adults: Evaluation of a Short Form of the CES-D","volume":"10","author":"EM Andresen","year":"1994","journal-title":"American Journal of Preventive Medicine"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2014.01.012","article-title":"Poverty and mental health in Indonesia","volume":"106","author":"G Tampubolon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2018.12.042","article-title":"Screening for depressive and anxiety disorders among adolescents in Indonesia: Formal validation of the centre for epidemiologic studies depression scale - revised and the Kessler psychological distress scale","volume":"246","author":"TD Tran","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0348726.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.166.10.1092","article-title":"A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7","volume":"166","author":"RL Spitzer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-016-1078-0","article-title":"The theoretical and practical determination of clinical cut-offs for the British Sign Language versions of PHQ-9 and GAD-7","volume":"16","author":"RA Belk","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5902610","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/5902610","article-title":"Screening of Generalized Anxiety Disorder in Patients with Epilepsy: Using a Valid and Reliable Indonesian Version of Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7)","volume":"2019","author":"A Budikayanti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurol Res Int"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348726.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3999(67)90010-4","article-title":"The Social Readjustment Rating Scale","volume":"11","author":"TH Holmes","year":"1967","journal-title":"J Psychosom Res"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0348726.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3999(78)90008-9","article-title":"The reliability of the Social Readjustment Rating Scale: moderate and long-term stability","volume":"22","author":"MS Gerst","year":"1978","journal-title":"J Psychosom Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022978019315","article-title":"Stressful Life Events: A Revision and Update of the Social Readjustment Rating Scale","volume":"5","author":"CJ Hobson","year":"1998","journal-title":"International Journal of Stress Management"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348726.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3999(97)00118-9","article-title":"Life changes scaling for the 1990s","volume":"43","author":"MA Miller","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Psychosom Res"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0348726.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1177\/00131640021970952","article-title":"Life Event Checklists: Revisiting the Social Readjustment Rating Scale after 30 Years","volume":"60","author":"JA Scully","year":"2000","journal-title":"Educational and Psychological Measurement"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0348726.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0295943","article-title":"The social readjustment rating scale: Updated and modernised","volume":"18","author":"D Wallace","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348726.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.21109\/kesmas.v1i2.317","article-title":"Socioeconomic index using principal component analysis","volume":"1","author":"I Ariawan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Kesmas"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref062","unstructured":"Regulation of the Head of the Central Statistics Agency Number 37 of 2010 concerning urban and rural classification in Indonesia. 2010."},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1038\/s44184-023-00032-z","article-title":"Assessment of depression and anxiety in young and old with a question-based computational language approach","volume":"2","author":"S Sikstr\u00f6m","year":"2023","journal-title":"NPJ Ment Health Res"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-97-0130-8_21","article-title":"Sex\/Gender Differences in Depression and Anxiety Disorders.","volume-title":"Sex\/Gender-Specific Medicine in Clinical Areas","author":"HY. Park","year":"2024"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2023.05.027","article-title":"Mental health and unemployment: A systematic review and meta-analysis of interventions to improve depression and anxiety outcomes","volume":"335","author":"AF Arena","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0348726.ref066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1495","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291709991942","article-title":"Gender and the relationship between marital status and first onset of mood, anxiety and substance use disorders","volume":"40","author":"KM Scott","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychol Med"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref067","article-title":"Adulthood.","author":"BJ Sadock","year":"2015","edition":"11"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref068","volume-title":"Stata Multiple-Imputation Reference Manual Release 18","year":"2025"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1080\/10615800310001637134","article-title":"Differences in negative life events between patients with anxiety disorders, depression and hypochondriasis","volume":"17","author":"B Sandin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anxiety, Stress & Coping"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348726.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.110.3.406","article-title":"Diathesis-stress theories in the context of life stress research: implications for the depressive disorders","volume":"110","author":"SM Monroe","year":"1991","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2014.12.024","article-title":"Stress and depression: old questions, new approaches","volume":"4","author":"CL Hammen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr Opin Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348726.ref072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1002\/jclp.22011","article-title":"Stressful life events and depression symptoms: the effect of childhood emotional abuse on stress reactivity","volume":"70","author":"BG Shapero","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Clin Psychol"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0348726.ref073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1080\/13607863.2016.1202894","article-title":"The importance of personality and life-events in anxious depression: from trait to state anxiety","volume":"21","author":"DC van der Veen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aging Ment Health"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0348726.ref074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1590","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2017.130","article-title":"A direct test of the diathesis-stress model for depression","volume":"23","author":"L Colodro-Conde","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348726.ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0213700","article-title":"Socioeconomic status, stressful life situations and mental health problems in children and adolescents: Results of the German BELLA cohort-study","volume":"14","author":"F Reiss","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27370","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-76990-x","article-title":"Financial assets and mental health over time","volume":"14","author":"CK Ettman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.52225\/narrax.v2i3.178","article-title":"Revitalizing the state of primary healthcare towards achieving universal health coverage in conflict affected fragile northeastern Nigeria: Challenges, strategies and way forward","volume":"2","author":"S Musa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Narra X"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348726.ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1177\/1403494820944718","article-title":"Mental health and the risk of negative social life events: A prospective cohort study among the adult Danish population","volume":"50","author":"AI Christensen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Scand J Public Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0348726.ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1597","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579422000323","article-title":"Anxiety, academic achievement, and academic self-concept: Meta-analytic syntheses of their relations across developmental periods","volume":"35","author":"LLE Brumariu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Development and Psychopathology"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2120","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-12168-8","article-title":"Education, household income, and depressive symptoms in middle-aged and older Japanese adults","volume":"21","author":"A Hinata","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348726.ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1097\/YCO.0000000000000588","article-title":"Urbanization, urbanicity, and depression: A review of the recent global literature","volume":"33","author":"L Sampson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr Opin Psychiatry"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2022.04.059","article-title":"Gender differences and determinants of late-life depression in China: A cross-sectional study based on CHARLS","volume":"309","author":"H Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0348726.ref083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1503\/jpn.150205","article-title":"Why is depression more prevalent in women?","volume":"40","author":"PR Albert","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Psychiatry Neurosci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348726.ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2014.05.004","article-title":"Sex differences in anxiety and depression clinical perspectives","volume":"35","author":"M Altemus","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front Neuroendocrinol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref085","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.2307\/353822","article-title":"Reconceptualizing Marital Status as a Continuum of Social Attachment","volume":"57","author":"CE Ross","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of Marriage and the Family"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348726.ref086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.4103\/ijcm.IJCM_627_20","article-title":"Study on Factors Associated with Depression among Elderly and Comparison of Two Scales Used for Screening","volume":"46","author":"S Nagar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Indian J Community Med"},{"key":"pone.0348726.ref087","author":"BPS-Statistics Indonesia","year":"2025"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348726.ref088","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.24815\/jks.v21i2.19603","article-title":"Social media addiction and stress among indonesian medical students in Banjarmasin","volume":"21","author":"A Jamila","year":"2021","journal-title":"Jurnal Kedokteran Syiah Kuala"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348726.ref089","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3999(67)90012-8","article-title":"The Social Readjustment Rating Scale: a cross-cultural study of Japanese and Americans","volume":"11","author":"M Masuda","year":"1967","journal-title":"J Psychosom Res"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0348726.ref090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5194","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291722002227","article-title":"Stressful life events increase the risk of major depressive episodes: A population-based twin study","volume":"53","author":"LD Bj\u00f8rndal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychol Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1590\/1516-4446-2019-0541","article-title":"Population density, depressive symptoms, and suicidal thoughts","volume":"42","author":"AO Werneck","year":"2020","journal-title":"Braz J Psychiatry"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0348726.ref092","first-page":"1","article-title":"A comprehensive review on postpartum depression","volume":"14","author":"O Suryawanshi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348726.ref093","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1080\/17437199.2024.2383224","article-title":"Climate hazards and psychological health among coastal communities in the Asia-Pacific region: a systematic review of quantitative and qualitative evidence","volume":"19","author":"S Kabir","year":"2025","journal-title":"Health Psychol Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348726.ref094","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6998","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-89298-1","article-title":"Association between climate related hazards and depression among coastal communities in Indonesia","volume":"15","author":"A Maharani","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0348726.ref095","first-page":"117","article-title":"The Effects of Climate Change on Mental Health","volume":"120","author":"A Walinski","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dtsch Arztebl Int"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0348726","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T17:23:15Z","timestamp":1779124995000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0348726"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Harapan","family":"Harapan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0348726","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]]}}}