{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]],"date-time":"2026-05-09T00:09:38Z","timestamp":1778285378678,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778198400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The existing Catholic churches constructed in the Sichuan-Chongqing region between 1840 and 1949, as precious carriers of Sino-Western cultural integration, have been listed in the cultural heritage protection catalog. This study employs the semantic difference method to conduct a quantitative evaluation of the main facade characteristics of these churches across five dimensions, operationalized through six specific evaluation criteria: relationship with the environment, facade contour, facade style 1 (Chinese vs. Western), facade style 2 (Folk vs. Official), facade decoration, and religious expression. The correlation between these facade features was also analyzed. The findings reveal: (1) Among the 62 existing Catholic churches in Sichuan and Chongqing, 14 are Chinese-style churches, accounting for 22.6%. (2) Facades demonstrate distinct cultural fusion: Chinese-style churches incorporate Western vertical composition elements, while Western-dominated churches integrate environmental harmony, Chinese architectural style, folk styles, and minimalist decoration. (3) According to the correlation analysis of Spearman\u2019s correlation coefficient, the correlation coefficient between the facade style and decorative characteristics of the church is 0.857, and the correlation coefficient with religious expression is 0.754, showing a significant positive correlation. This study aims to provide a reference for the quantitative evaluation of cultural heritage facade characteristics and preservation of Sino-Western architectural cultural integration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0348806","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T23:10:27Z","timestamp":1778281827000},"page":"e0348806","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comprehensive feature evaluation of the main facades of Catholic churches in Sichuan-Chongqing region based on semantic difference method, 1840\u20131949"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Qin","family":"Lai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xinkai","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Beibei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nan","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-9554-4364","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"YunZhang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348806.ref001","article-title":"Spatiotemporal dynamics of Catholic church heritage in Sichuan using density weighted historical segmentation and SHAP","volume":"13","author":"H Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"NPJ Herit Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348806.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1163\/1570061054030305","article-title":"Challenging the imperial order: the precarious status of local Christians in Late-qing Sichuan","volume":"4","author":"J-G Daigle","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur J East Asian Stud"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref003","first-page":"1","article-title":"Church architecture and church buildings: China.","volume-title":"The Palgrave Handbook of the Catholic Church in East Asia","author":"T Coomans","year":"2023"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0348806.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings15060947","article-title":"Research on the construction of Sino-Western fusion catholic churches in China: a case study of a catholic church in Anqing","volume":"15","author":"L Yin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Buildings"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/13467581.2025.2512480","article-title":"A study on the architectural features and value of modern Catholic churches in Macau","author":"Y Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Asian Archit Build Eng"},{"issue":"06","key":"pone.0348806.ref006","article-title":"Issues and reflections on the sinicization of Christianity: a case study of Heilongjiang","author":"M Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Heilongjiang Ethnic Studies Series"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0348806.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.3390\/rel12080661","article-title":"Bailu\u2019s Catholicism in China: Religious Inculturation, Tourist Attraction, or Secularization","volume":"12","author":"X Liao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Religions"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref008","volume-title":"Material Christianity","author":"C McDannell","year":"1995"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref009","unstructured":"Bess JC. Building the church: the future of Catholic church architecture in light of narrative virtue ethics and new urbanism. 2003. Available from: https:\/\/ecommons.udayton.edu\/graduate_theses\/1529"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348806.ref010","first-page":"83","article-title":"Study of various types of aesthetic elements on architectural styles facade of church St. Yusuf Cirebon","volume":"6","author":"T Pynkyawati","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Built Environ Sci Res"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348806.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.21817\/ijet\/2018\/v10i3\/181003099","article-title":"Catholic church is the divinity symbol with case study of Santa Theresia church in Jakarta, Indonesia.","volume":"10","author":"R Trisno","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int J Eng Technol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348806.ref012","article-title":"Striking a harmonious chord: foreign missionaries and Chinese-style buildings, 1911-1949","volume":"5","author":"JW Cody","year":"1996","journal-title":"Architronic"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003537137","volume-title":"Adaptive reuse of Roman Catholic churches: good practice and viable solutions for converting sacred spaces","author":"M Arno","year":"2026"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0348806.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2800","DOI":"10.1080\/13467581.2023.2172337","article-title":"A parametric analysis of the \u201cdigitally-derived geometric design\u201d of the fa\u00e7ade of the Macau St. Dominic\u2019s Church","volume":"22","author":"J Tang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Asian Archit Build Eng"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0348806.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.1080\/15583058.2020.1858369","article-title":"Modelling strategies for the in-plane behaviour of iron-framed masonry structures: parametric analysis on simple panels and a church fa\u00e7ade","volume":"16","author":"LU Argiento","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Archit Herit"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.54097\/hset.v79i.15110","article-title":"Architectural characterization of Hongjialou Catholic Church in Jinan","volume":"79","author":"Z Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Highlights Sci Eng Technol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0348806.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.3390\/arts11060113","article-title":"The polychrome in expression of baroque fa\u00e7ade architecture","volume":"11","author":"B Ludwig","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arts"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348806.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1080\/15583058.2014.924605","article-title":"Cultural heritage documentation and conservation: three-dimensional (3D) laser scanning and geographical information system (GIS) techniques for thematic mapping of facade stonework of St. Nicholas Church (Pisa, Italy)","volume":"10","author":"M Lezzerini","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Archit Herit"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348806.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.18517\/ijaseit.10.2.6184","article-title":"A liturgical relation with the spatial configuration and architectural form of the catholic church","volume":"10","author":"R Trisno","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Adv Sci Eng Inf Technol"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cirillo E, Martellotta F. Acoustics and architecture in Italian Catholic churches. In: International Symposium on Room Acoustics: Satellite Symposium of the 19th International Congress on Acoustics. 2007.","DOI":"10.1260\/135101007781998938"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref021","first-page":"1","article-title":"A diachronic analysis of the fa\u00e7ades of the Filipino-Spanish Churches of the Diocese of Maasin in the Context of the Slave Raids from the South Isang Diyakronikong Pagsusuri ng mga Facade ng Pilipino-Espanyol na Simbahan sa Diyosesis ng Maasin sa Konteksto","volume":"7","author":"RAG L18.oreto","year":"2023","journal-title":"SPAFA Journal"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref022","author":"HZ Zhang","year":"2023"},{"issue":"09","key":"pone.0348806.ref023","first-page":"45","article-title":"Types and evolution of modern Catholic church floor plans in southwest China","author":"S Hou","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Archit"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref024","author":"Y Huang","year":"2003"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref025","author":"JJ Yu","year":"2016"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref026","author":"C He","year":"2006"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref027","volume-title":"Modern Catholic Church Architecture in Western Sichuan","author":"L Cao","year":"2003"},{"issue":"09","key":"pone.0348806.ref028","first-page":"66","article-title":"The architectural characteristics of Sino-Western fusion in Catholic churches in Southwest China","author":"JY Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"China Religion"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref029","first-page":"72","article-title":"The architectural characteristics of Sino-Western fusion in Catholic churches in Sichuan during the Qing Dynasty","volume":"12","author":"H Feng","year":"2020","journal-title":"China Religion"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref030","author":"LP Sun","year":"2022"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348806.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1525\/aa.1964.66.3.02a00880","article-title":"Semantic differential technique in the comparative study of cultures","volume":"66","author":"CE Osgood","year":"1964","journal-title":"Am Anthropol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0348806.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ergon.2012.09.002","article-title":"Products classification in emotional design using a basic-emotion based semantic differential method","volume":"42","author":"Y Huang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int J Ind Ergon"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref033","first-page":"105","article-title":"An application study of post-update evaluation methods from an affective semantic perspective: a case study of neighborhood renovation","author":"ZY Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Archit"},{"issue":"14","key":"pone.0348806.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4751","DOI":"10.3390\/app10144751","article-title":"Comparing semantic differential methods in affective engineering processes: a case study on vehicle instrument panels","volume":"10","author":"GW Shin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl Sci"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0348806.ref035","article-title":"Correlation research on visual behavior and cognition of impression against localized church facades in China","volume":"10","author":"M Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0348806.ref036","first-page":"221","article-title":"Evaluation of urban waterfront landscape quality based on semantic differential method: a case of zhonghuamen section of Qinhuai River in Nanjing","volume":"44","author":"JJ Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Nanjing For Univ"},{"issue":"02","key":"pone.0348806.ref037","first-page":"114","article-title":"An evaluation of classical garden rock art using the SD method: A case study of Yangzhou Ge Garden","volume":"39","author":"JD Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Yangzhou Univ"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0348806.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8369","DOI":"10.3390\/su15108369","article-title":"Research on the healing effect evaluation of campus\u2019 small-scale courtyard based on the method of semantic differential and the perceived restorative scale","volume":"15","author":"Y Cao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348806.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foar.2021.01.002","article-title":"Integrating eye-movement analysis and the semantic differential method to analyze the visual effect of a traditional commercial block in Hefei, China","volume":"10","author":"Z Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Archit Res"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eiar.2019.106353","article-title":"Improvement of the integration of visually impacting architectures in historical urban scene, an application of semantic differencial method","volume":"81","author":"J Serra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ Impact Assess Rev"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0348806.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1007\/s11442-020-1785-9","article-title":"Theory and measurement model of administrative region potential from a perspective of administrative division adjustment: taking Chongqing city as a case study","volume":"30","author":"K Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Geogr Sci"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quaint.2025.109726","article-title":"Early human settlements and mobility patterns in the Sichuan\u2013Chongqing region from the late Neolithic to the Bronze Age","volume":"724","author":"Y Gao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Quat Int"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref043","volume-title":"Catholic Church in Sichuan","author":"JX Liu","year":"2009"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0348806.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1057\/udi.2013.18","article-title":"An evaluation of the elements and characteristics of historical building fa\u00e7ades in the context of Malaysia","volume":"19","author":"A Hossein Askari","year":"2013","journal-title":"Urban Des Int"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0348806.ref045","first-page":"1839","article-title":"Building facade study in Lahijan city, Iran: the impact of facade\u2019s visual elements on historical image","volume":"6","author":"N Utaberta","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int J Humanit Soc Sci"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0348806.ref046","article-title":"Influence of building fa\u00e7ade visual elements on its historical image: Case of Kuala Lumpur city, Malaysia","volume":"5","author":"H Amir","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Des Built Environ"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref047","first-page":"14","article-title":"Charles Borromeo and catholic tradition regarding the design of catholic churches","volume":"9","author":"ME Gallegos","year":"2004","journal-title":"Church Archit J"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref048","volume-title":"Seeking the sacred in contemporary religious architecture","author":"DR Hoffman","year":"2010"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref049","first-page":"1","article-title":"Architecture and urban planning in East Prussia from 1933\u20131945: defining characteristics, major research needs, and research themes","volume":"3","author":"J Salm","year":"2019","journal-title":"kunsttexte de-Journal f\u00fcr Kunst-und Bildgeschichte"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0348806.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1353\/cat.2025.a969236","article-title":"Architectural theory and theology of the catholic church ornamentation in Spain and Hispano-America (sixteenth century): a concept that transcends the mere decorative","volume":"111","author":"F Guzm\u00e1n","year":"2025","journal-title":"cat"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110229523","volume-title":"Saints and signs: a semiotic reading of conversion in early modern Catholicism","author":"M Leone","year":"2010"},{"issue":"09","key":"pone.0348806.ref052","first-page":"63","article-title":"Evaluation of plant landscapes in urban sports squares using the semantic difference method (SD)","volume":"31","author":"J Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Anhui Agricultural Science Bulletin"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0348806.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1484\/J.RB.1.103325","article-title":"La cr\u00e9ation d\u2019un style architectural sino-chr\u00e9tien. L\u2019\u0153uvre d\u2019Adelbert Gresnigt, moine-artiste b\u00e9n\u00e9dictin en Chine (1927-1932)","volume":"123","author":"T Coomans","year":"2013","journal-title":"Revue b\u00e9n\u00e9dictine"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref054","volume-title":"The culture of cities","author":"M Lewis","year":"1938"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1057\/9781137353658_8","article-title":"Indigenizing catholic architecture in China: from western-gothic to sino-christian design, 1900\u20131940.","volume-title":"Catholicism in China, 1900-present: The development of the Chinese church","author":"T Coomans","year":"2014"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref056","first-page":"495","article-title":"Mimesis, nostalgia and ideology: the Scheut Fathers and home-country-based church design in China.","volume-title":"History of the Catholic Church in China: From its beginning to the Scheut Fathers and 20th century. Unveiling some less known sources, sounds and pictures","author":"T Coomans","year":"2015"},{"key":"pone.0348806.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-97-0659-4_8","article-title":"Church architecture and church buildings: China.","volume-title":"The Palgrave Handbook of the Catholic Church in East Asia","author":"T Coomans","year":"2025"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0348806","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T23:10:40Z","timestamp":1778281840000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0348806"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Kofi","family":"Agyekum","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0348806","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]]}}}