{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T18:11:39Z","timestamp":1778868699433,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778803200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"JSPS","award":["22K11582"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22K11582"]}]},{"name":"JSPS","award":["24K15677"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24K15677"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\">\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>There is notable sex difference in the manner of locomotion, but researchers are yet to obtain the comprehensive information about the biomechanical difference in gait pattern between males and females. The present study aimed to investigate sex differences in plantar pressure distribution during self-paced walking using a cluster-based permutation approach.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec002\">\n                    <jats:title>Method<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Plantar pressure data were collected from 24 healthy males and 68 healthy females using a pressure-sensor footplate. Group comparisons were conducted for basic gait parameters as well as pressure-related metrics, including maximum force, peak pressure, and contact area size. Additionally, time-series characteristics of total force were compared between sexes. A cluster-based permutation test was used to identify spatial and temporal regions with significant sex differences in plantar pressure distribution at high resolution.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec003\">\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Analyses revealed that females exhibited shorter step durations and higher cadence compared to males, attributable in part to differences in the duration of the late stance phase. Females also demonstrated higher weight-normalized plantar pressures across most of the stance phase. Sex-specific differences in plantar pressure distribution were localized to the calcaneal and second metatarsal regions.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec004\">\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Spatially localized pattern of sex difference in the plantar pressure indicates that biomechanical factors may contribute to the sex difference in the incidence rates of clinical conditions such as stress fracture. There was also a hitherto unreported pattern of sex difference in the time-series of total force, that may be related to sex-specific strategy to keep a self-preferred walking speed.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0349134","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T17:35:53Z","timestamp":1778866553000},"page":"e0349134","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Spatiotemporal localization of sex difference in plantar pressure distribution during self paced walking in healthy Japanese adults"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0421-2492","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Hirokazu","family":"Doi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Natsumi","family":"Furuta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hyunchul","family":"Yoon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kazuo","family":"Funato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0349134.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2012.00183","article-title":"Central pattern generator for locomotion: Anatomical, physiological, and pathophysiological considerations","volume":"3","author":"PA Guertin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"pone.0349134.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artmed.2022.102314","article-title":"A comprehensive survey on gait analysis: History, parameters, approaches, pose estimation, and future work","volume":"129","author":"D Sethi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Artif Intell Med"},{"key":"pone.0349134.ref003","article-title":"A review of gait cycle and its parameters","volume":"13","author":"A Kharb","year":"2011","journal-title":"IJCEM International Journal of Computational Engineering & Management"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0349134.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03208295","article-title":"Temporal and spatial factors in gait perception that influence gender recognition","volume":"23","author":"CD Barclay","year":"1978","journal-title":"Percept Psychophys"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0349134.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1167\/2.5.2","article-title":"Decomposing biological motion: A framework for analysis and synthesis of human gait patterns","volume":"2","author":"NF Troje","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Vis"},{"issue":"14","key":"pone.0349134.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3178","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10143178","article-title":"Gender and sex are key determinants in osteoarthritis not only confounding variables. A systematic review of clinical data","volume":"10","author":"M Tschon","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0349134.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.7205\/MILMED-D-10-00322","article-title":"Females have a greater incidence of stress fractures than males in both military and athletic populations: A systemic review","volume":"176","author":"L Wentz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mil Med"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0349134.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0237449","article-title":"Whole body kinematic sex differences persist across non-dimensional gait speeds","volume":"15","author":"DA Bruening","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0349134.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2021.05.014","article-title":"Age and sex differences in normative gait patterns","volume":"88","author":"E Rowe","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0349134.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00626763","article-title":"Sex difference in the pattern of lower limb movement during treadmill walking","volume":"62","author":"M Yamasaki","year":"1991","journal-title":"Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0349134.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1089\/15246090260137626","article-title":"Gender differences in pelvic motions and center of mass displacement during walking: stereotypes quantified","volume":"11","author":"LK Smith","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Womens Health Gend Based Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0349134.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2003.10.003","article-title":"Gender differences in three dimensional gait analysis data from 98 healthy Korean adults","volume":"19","author":"SH Cho","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin Biomech (Bristol)"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0349134.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1097\/00002060-199801000-00002","article-title":"Gender differences in joint biomechanics during walking: Normative study in young adults","volume":"77","author":"DC Kerrigan","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am J Phys Med Rehabil"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0349134.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2009.07.002","article-title":"Simultaneous estimation of effects of gender, age and walking speed on kinematic gait data","volume":"30","author":"J R\u00f8islien","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0349134.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2014.12.011","article-title":"Sex differences in whole body gait kinematics at preferred speeds","volume":"41","author":"DA Bruening","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0349134.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9884","DOI":"10.3390\/s120709884","article-title":"Foot plantar pressure measurement system: A review","volume":"12","author":"AHA Razak","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)"},{"key":"pone.0349134.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106998","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parkreldis.2024.106998","article-title":"Temporal and spatial characteristics of plantar pressure center trajectory for identifying early Parkinson\u2019s disease gait","volume":"124","author":"X Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Parkinsonism Relat Disord"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0349134.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2302","article-title":"Abnormal gait patterns in autism spectrum disorder and their correlations with social impairments","volume":"13","author":"L Gong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Autism Res"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0349134.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0321632","article-title":"Analysis of centre of pressure trajectories and plantar pressure distribution to map development of foot-ground interactions from new to confident walking infants","volume":"20","author":"E Montagnani","year":"2025","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0349134.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2021.12.003","article-title":"Longitudinal study of foot pressures during real-world walking as infants develop from new to confident walkers","volume":"92","author":"C Price","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0349134.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fas.2009.03.005","article-title":"Foot pressure differences in men and women","volume":"16","author":"AB Putti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Foot Ankle Surg"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0349134.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139.2011.583359","article-title":"Gender and walking speed effects on plantar pressure distribution for adults aged 20-60 years","volume":"55","author":"M-J Chung","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0349134.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1177\/107110070502600210","article-title":"Efficacy of plantar loading parameters during gait in terms of reliability, variability, effect of gender and relationship between contact area and plantar pressure","volume":"26","author":"DF Murphy","year":"2005","journal-title":"Foot Ankle Int"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0349134.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1186\/s12891-025-08634-8","article-title":"Prevalence of flatfoot and gender differences in plantar pressure among third-year high school students in Tongzhou district Beijing","volume":"26","author":"J Shen","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMC Musculoskelet Disord"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0349134.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aott.2019.01.006","article-title":"Gender and age impact on plantar pressure distribution in early adolescence","volume":"53","author":"\u0130 Demirb\u00fcken","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Orthop Traumatol Turc"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0349134.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1177\/1071100713508394","article-title":"Gait analysis in orthopedic foot and ankle surgery--topical review, part 1: Principles and uses of gait analysis","volume":"35","author":"DJ Mayich","year":"2014","journal-title":"Foot Ankle Int"},{"key":"pone.0349134.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110099","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2023.1110099","article-title":"Effects of age, body height, body weight, body mass index and handgrip strength on the trajectory of the plantar pressure stance-phase curve of the gait cycle","volume":"11","author":"C Wolff","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Bioeng Biotechnol"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0349134.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.7547\/87507315-90-7-334","article-title":"Velocity of the center of pressure during walking","volume":"90","author":"MW Cornwall","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Am Podiatr Med Assoc"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0349134.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2012.05.030","article-title":"Gait speed and gender effects on center of pressure progression during normal walking","volume":"37","author":"M-C Chiu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0349134.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.1058","article-title":"Nonparametric permutation tests for functional neuroimaging: a primer with examples","volume":"15","author":"TE Nichols","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hum Brain Mapp"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0349134.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2011.01273.x","article-title":"Mass univariate analysis of event-related brain potentials\/fields I: A critical tutorial review","volume":"48","author":"DM Groppe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"pone.0349134.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.1996.0074","article-title":"Detecting activations in PET and fMRI: Levels of inference and power","volume":"4","author":"KJ Friston","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"pone.0349134.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1186\/1748-717X-8-293","article-title":"Multiple comparisons permutation test for image based data mining in radiotherapy","volume":"8","author":"C Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Radiat Oncol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0349134.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1177\/19417381221080440","article-title":"Age and female sex are important risk factors for stress fractures: A nationwide database analysis","volume":"14","author":"NN Kale","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sports Health"},{"key":"pone.0349134.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1435807","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1435807","article-title":"Risk factors of metatarsal stress fracture associated with repetitive sports activities: A systematic review","volume":"12","author":"J Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front Bioeng Biotechnol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0349134.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/0268-0033(91)90036-P","article-title":"Reliability of pressure measurements: The EM ED F system","volume":"6","author":"J Hughes","year":"1991","journal-title":"Clin Biomech (Bristol)"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0349134.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1177\/18632521251335875","article-title":"Impact of body weight and age on plantar pressure in typically developing children: Normative data and methodological considerations","volume":"19","author":"A Behrendt","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Child Orthop"},{"key":"pone.0349134.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2022.09.071","article-title":"Plantar pressure alterations associated with increased BMI in young adults","volume":"98","author":"K Khalaf","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0349134.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900","DOI":"10.1007\/s11999-011-1780-7","article-title":"Gender differences in osteoporosis and fractures","volume":"469","author":"PM Cawthon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin Orthop Relat Res"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0349134.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1097\/TME.0000000000000154","article-title":"Metatarsal stress fractures","volume":"39","author":"DR Ramponi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv Emerg Nurs J"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0349134.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1722","DOI":"10.1016\/j.injury.2015.06.015","article-title":"Stress fractures of the foot and ankle","volume":"48","author":"MJ Welck","year":"2017","journal-title":"Injury"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0349134.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-9993(95)81037-4","article-title":"Walking cadence effect on plantar pressures","volume":"76","author":"H Zhu","year":"1995","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0349134.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.7547\/0980302","article-title":"Cadence, age, and weight as determinants of forefoot plantar pressures using the Biofoot in-shoe system","volume":"98","author":"A Mart\u00ednez-Nova","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Am Podiatr Med Assoc"},{"issue":"17","key":"pone.0349134.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1650","DOI":"10.2106\/JBJS.H.01630","article-title":"The pathogenesis of hallux valgus","volume":"93","author":"AM Perera","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Bone Joint Surg Am"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0349134.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1054\/foot.1999.0538","article-title":"Plantar pressure distribution in normal, hallux valgus and hallux limitus feet","volume":"9","author":"A Bryant","year":"1999","journal-title":"The Foot"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0349134.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1688","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.22707","article-title":"Plantar pressure characteristics in hallux valgus feet","volume":"32","author":"U Koller","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Orthop Res"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0349134.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jos.2017.08.008","article-title":"Comparison of plantar pressure distribution in patients with hallux valgus and healthy matched controls","volume":"22","author":"T Hida","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Orthop Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0349134.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1007\/s00776-013-0513-z","article-title":"Prevalence of hallux valgus and risk factors among Japanese community dwellers","volume":"19","author":"A Nishimura","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Orthop Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0349134.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.7547\/0940434","article-title":"Size and shape differences between male and female foot bones: Is the female foot predisposed to hallux abducto valgus deformity?","volume":"94","author":"J Ferrari","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Am Podiatr Med Assoc"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0349134.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.3349\/ymj.2015.56.2.466","article-title":"Sex-related differences in outcomes after hallux valgus surgery","volume":"56","author":"GW Choi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Yonsei Med J"},{"key":"pone.0349134.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2015.07.009","article-title":"Effect of walking speed on gait sub phase durations","volume":"43","author":"F Hebenstreit","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum Mov Sci"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0349134.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.7547\/87507315-89-10-495","article-title":"Variability of plantar pressure data. A comparison of the two-step and midgait methods","volume":"89","author":"TG McPoil","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Am Podiatr Med Assoc"},{"key":"pone.0349134.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.11660","article-title":"Intra-subject sample size effects in plantar pressure analyses","volume":"9","author":"J McClymont","year":"2021","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0349134.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1097\/00005768-200104000-00015","article-title":"Gender differences in adult foot shape: Implications for shoe design","volume":"33","author":"RE Wunderlich","year":"2001","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0349134.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.maturitas.2014.07.019","article-title":"Gender and age related differences in foot morphology","volume":"79","author":"D Tomassoni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Maturitas"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0349134.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2008.04.034","article-title":"Pedobarographic statistical parametric mapping (pSPM): A pixel-level approach to foot pressure image analysis","volume":"41","author":"TC Pataky","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Biomech"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0349134.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02344770","article-title":"Integrated pressure-force-kinematics measuring system for the characterisation of plantar foot loading during locomotion","volume":"38","author":"C Giacomozzi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Med Biol Eng Comput"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0349134","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T17:36:01Z","timestamp":1778866561000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0349134"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Zixiang","family":"Gao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0349134","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]]}}}