{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T18:06:14Z","timestamp":1779991574926,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779926400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Arsi University","award":["CoHS\/R\/10\/2024\/2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CoHS\/R\/10\/2024\/2025"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"\n Background<\/jats:title>\n \n Adolescent peer violence is a critical public health challenge in low- and middle-income countries. However, existing research in sub-Saharan Africa often focuses disproportionately on intimate partner violence or male-centered aggression, leaving a significant data gap regarding broader peer-to-peer dynamics in rapidly urbanizing Ethiopian settings. Furthermore, there is an urgent need for evidence that integrates psychosocial traits with environmental influences. This study addresses these gaps by utilizing the\n Socio-Ecological Model (SEM)<\/jats:bold>\n \u2014a framework that examines the interplay between individual, relationship, community, and societal factors\u2014to investigate peer violence in Asella, Ethiopia. We specifically explore the role of\n General Self-Efficacy (GSE)<\/jats:bold>\n , defined as an individual\u2019s belief in their ability to perform across a variety of situations, as a potential driver of behavior. Our objective was to determine the magnitude of violence victimization and perpetration and to identify multi-level risk factors among school-going adolescents.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Methods<\/jats:title>\n \n A school-based cross-sectional study was conducted among\n 542 adolescents<\/jats:bold>\n (response rate\u2009=\u200999.5%) using a structured, self-administered questionnaire. Magnitude was assessed through standardized behavioral scales, and psychological resilience was measured using the General Self-Efficacy (GSE) scale. Multivariable binary logistic regression was utilized to identify independent predictors across the Socio-Ecological Model (SEM) levels.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Results<\/jats:title>\n \n The prevalence of violence\n victimization was 41.6%<\/jats:bold>\n (95% CI: 37.3\u201345.9%) and\n perpetration was 33.8%<\/jats:bold>\n (95% CI: 29.7\u201338.1%). Based on bullying roles, 15.0% were \u201cBully-Victims,\u201d who reported the lowest mean self-efficacy score (25.5\u2009\u00b1\u20093.6). Multivariable analysis revealed that\n low self-efficacy (\u226428)<\/jats:bold>\n was the strongest predictor for victimization (\n AOR\u2009=\u20092.88<\/jats:bold>\n ; 95% CI: 1.95\u20134.26), while\n witnessing community violence<\/jats:bold>\n was the primary driver for perpetration (\n AOR\u2009=\u20092.52<\/jats:bold>\n ; 95% CI: 1.77\u20133.59). Male gender and belonging to the lowest wealth quartile significantly increased the odds for both outcomes.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n Adolescent violence in Asella is a multi-dimensional public health issue driven by a cycle of low individual agency and environmental normalization of aggression. Strategies to mitigate this burden must move beyond the individual level. We recommend a comprehensive response that integrates school-based self-efficacy enhancement, community-level peace-building initiatives to reduce the impact of witnessed violence, and societal-level poverty alleviation. Such a multi-level approach is essential to disrupt the interplay between psychological vulnerability and environmental risk.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0350131","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T17:36:04Z","timestamp":1779989764000},"page":"e0350131","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Individual, community, and societal drivers of adolescent peer violence in Asella, Ethiopia: A school-based cross-sectional study utilizing the socio-ecological model"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7240-7238","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ayalneh","family":"Demissie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tesfa","family":"G\/Meskel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kasim","family":"Kimo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammedawel","family":"Kaso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yehwalishet","family":"Demeke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tahir","family":"Aman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yonas","family":"Mulugeta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Addis","family":"Wordofa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0350131.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1080\/15564886.2010.509655","article-title":"Violent victimization and perpetration: joint and distinctive implications for adolescent development","volume":"5","author":"PL Russell","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vict Offender"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1002\/ajcp.12716","article-title":"Social networks and violence victimization and perpetration among youth: a longitudinal analysis","volume":"73","author":"N Mullet","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am J Community Psychol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0350131.ref003","article-title":"Adolescent violence perpetration: associations with multiple types of adverse childhood experiences","volume":"125","author":"NN Duke","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-53028-4_2","article-title":"School bullying in different countries: prevalence, risk factors, and short-term outcomes","author":"I Zych","year":"2017","journal-title":"SpringerBriefs in Psychology. Springer International Publishing"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-009-5413-9","article-title":"A cross-national profile of bullying and victimization among adolescents in 40 countries","volume":"54","author":"W Craig","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int J Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2020.100276","article-title":"Global variation in the prevalence of bullying victimisation amongst adolescents: role of peer and parental supports","volume":"20","author":"T Biswas","year":"2020","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0350131.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1003552","article-title":"Assessing the relationship between agency and peer violence among adolescents aged 10 to 14 years in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo and Blantyre, Malawi: a cross-sectional study","volume":"18","author":"A Ramaiya","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2017.01.015","article-title":"Youth exposure to violence in the community: towards a theoretical framework for explaining risk and protective factors","volume":"34","author":"MJL Antunes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aggression and Violent Behavior"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0350131.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.5993\/AJHB.26.6.6","article-title":"Risk factors and behaviors associated with adolescent violence and aggression","volume":"26","author":"RF Valois","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am J Health Behav"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350131.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.soc.27.1.1","article-title":"Violence and the life course: the consequences of victimization for personal and social development","volume":"27","author":"R Macmillan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annu Rev Sociol"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref011","unstructured":"CDC. The social-ecological model: A framework for prevention. 2022. Accessed 2023 November 28. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/violence-prevention"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref012","volume-title":"Why invest in violence prevention?","author":"WHO, Violence Prevention Alliance, Education Development Center","year":"2011"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0350131.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1177\/1097184X17696171","article-title":"Hegemonic masculinity, violence, and gender equality: using latent class analysis to investigate the origins and correlates of differences between men","volume":"21","author":"R Jewkes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Men Masculinities"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350131.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2287","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-023-17245-8","article-title":"Child maltreatment associates with violent victimization in young adulthood: a Brazilian birth cohort study","volume":"23","author":"E Bordignon","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.3121\/cmr.2016.1306","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences and health in adulthood in a rural population-based sample","volume":"14","author":"KC Iniguez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin Med Res"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0350131.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1080\/10852352.2012.707439","article-title":"The health and social consequences of adverse childhood experiences (ACE) across the lifespan: an introduction to prevention and intervention in the community","volume":"40","author":"H Larkin","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Prev Interv Community"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0350131.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1515\/ijamh-2013-0327","article-title":"A conceptual framework for early adolescence: a platform for research","volume":"26","author":"RW Blum","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Adolesc Med Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350131.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579409000145","article-title":"Community violence: a meta-analysis on the effect of exposure and mental health outcomes of children and adolescents","volume":"21","author":"PJ Fowler","year":"2009","journal-title":"Dev Psychopathol"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref019","article-title":"Children\u2019s experiences of violence: evidence from the young lives study in Ethiopia, India, Peru and Vietnam","author":"K Pells","year":"2018","journal-title":"Young Lives"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350131.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s10940-008-9057-3","article-title":"New evidence on the monetary value of saving a high risk youth","volume":"25","author":"MA Cohen","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Quant Criminol"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref021","unstructured":"UN Women office publishing. Europe and Central Asia: intersectionality and violence against women. 2019."},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref022","volume-title":"Mental health status of adolescents in South-East Asia: Evidence for action","author":"WHO","year":"2017"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350131.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1186\/s42506-019-0019-4","article-title":"Prevalence and correlates of bullying and victimization among school students in rural Egypt","volume":"94","author":"YS Galal","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Egypt Public Health Assoc"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871466","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.871466","article-title":"School climate questionnaire: a new tool for assessing the school environment","volume":"13","author":"AA Bochaver","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref025","unstructured":"Chan KL. Study on child abuse and spouse battering: report on findings of household survey. 2005. https:\/\/www.legco.gov.hk\/yr04-05\/english\/panels\/ws\/ws_fvi\/papers\/ws_fvi0705cb2-2158-2e.pdf"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref026","unstructured":"World Health Organization, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Ethiopia Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) 2006, Ref. ETH_2006_GSHS_v01_M. url"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref027","volume-title":"Measuring bullying victimization, perpetration, and bystander experiences: a compendium of assessment tools","author":"ME Hamburger","year":"2011"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref028","first-page":"35","article-title":"Generalized Self-Efficacy scale.","volume-title":"Weinman J, Wright S, Johnston M, editors. Measures in health psychology: A user\u2019s portfolio","author":"R Schwarzer","year":"1995"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref029","unstructured":"Richters J, Saltzman W. Survey of exposure to community violence: self report version. 1990. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.13140\/RG.2.2.13714.04808"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller L, Butera NM. Polyvictimization and adolescent health and well-being in Ethiopia: The mediating role of resilience. 2023;20(18).","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20186755"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350131.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-022-00967-6","article-title":"Bullying victimization and its associated factors among adolescents in Illu Abba Bor Zone, Southwest Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study","volume":"10","author":"H Tarafa","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMC Psychol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0350131.ref032","first-page":"460","article-title":"The magnitude and associated factors of peer bullying among high school students in Debark Town, Northwest Ethiopia","volume":"29","author":"D Tadesse","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ethiop J Health Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0350131.ref033","article-title":"The prevalence and factors associated with violence among school adolescents in Gondar town, Northwest Ethiopia","volume":"61","author":"M Zewdie","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Prev Med Hyg"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0350131.ref034","first-page":"127","article-title":"Poly-victimization: a new domain in the study of child victimization","volume":"33","author":"D Finkelhor","year":"2009","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref035","volume-title":"Trends in the prevalence of behaviors that contribute to violence: National YRBS, 1991\u20132019","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","year":"2019"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref036","volume-title":"Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS)","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","year":"2020"},{"issue":"9977","key":"pone.0350131.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1580","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)61683-4","article-title":"From work with men and boys to changes of social norms and reduction of inequities in gender relations: a conceptual shift in prevention of violence against women and girls","volume":"385","author":"R Jewkes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref038","volume-title":"Gender and violence in South Africa: an integrated approach to men\u2019s violence against women and boys","author":"R Jewkes","year":"2010"},{"key":"pone.0350131.ref039","volume-title":"World report on violence and health","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2002"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0350131.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.12.4.7","article-title":"Public health policy for preventing violence","volume":"12","author":"JA Mercy","year":"1993","journal-title":"Health Aff (Millwood)"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0350131","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T17:36:12Z","timestamp":1779989772000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0350131"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Vincenzo","family":"De Luca","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0350131","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]]}}}