{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T18:42:33Z","timestamp":1783536153166,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783468800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Bexar Metro 9-1-1 Network"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Emergency call takers and dispatchers (ECDs) are routinely exposed to emotionally intense and highly stressful events, placing them at elevated risk for mental health challenges. Despite their critical role in emergency response, ECDs remain underrepresented in occupational mental health research, and it is unclear why some adapt more effectively than others under chronic stress. Cognitive appraisal theory suggests that differences in emotional reactivity\u2014how individuals evaluate stimuli in terms of arousal and valence\u2014may contribute to this variation. To test this, a sample of ECDs provided open-ended narratives of a stressful work-related event and completed the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21). Narratives were analyzed using natural language processing to quantify emotional reactivity through the usage of high and low arousal language, and positively and negatively valenced language. Analyses revealed that greater use of negatively valenced language significantly predicted higher depression and anxiety, whereas positively valenced and arousal language did not. Stress symptoms were not significantly predicted by any linguistic markers of emotional reactivity. Follow-up analyses showed that individuals with moderate or higher depression and anxiety used significantly more negatively valenced language than those below threshold. These findings suggest that negatively valenced language serves as a robust marker of psychological distress among ECDs, even when narratives are elicited in contexts that naturally evoke negative emotion. Results highlight the potential of language-based tools for early, unobtrusive detection of distress, offering scalable approaches to promote resilience and support well-being in this critical workforce.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0350551","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T17:22:12Z","timestamp":1783531332000},"page":"e0350551","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Linguistic markers of emotional reactivity and their association with anxiety, depression, and stress among emergency call takers and dispatchers"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2373-335X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Vivian P.","family":"Ta-Johnson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isabella M.","family":"Swafford","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paige","family":"Lindsey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liliane D.","family":"Efinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Janelle","family":"Kohler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Fernandez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victoria A.","family":"Torres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suzy B.","family":"Gulliver","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9900-636X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sandra B.","family":"Morissette","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350551.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1007\/s11896-023-09599-x","article-title":"Emergency communication operators: findings from the national wellness survey for public safety personnel","volume":"39","author":"JR Blalock","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Police Crim Psych"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.3735","article-title":"Exploring the psychological health of emergency dispatch centre operatives: a systematic review and narrative synthesis","volume":"5","author":"SE Golding","year":"2017","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref003","article-title":"The first, first responder: navigating trauma, burnout, and compassion satisfaction","author":"KL O\u2019Connell","year":"2024","journal-title":"Traumatology"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0350551.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1093\/occmed\/kqae104","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis on the mental health of emergency and urgent call-handlers and dispatchers","volume":"75","author":"C Os\u00f3rio","year":"2025","journal-title":"Occup Med (Lond)"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref005","volume-title":"States focus on bolstering the 911 workforce","author":"National Conference of State Legislatures","year":"2023"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref006","volume-title":"New research suggests 911 call centers lack resources to handle behavioral health crises","author":"Pew Charitable Trusts","year":"2021"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425787","volume-title":"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision","author":"American Psychological Association","year":"2022","edition":"5"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0350551.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.46.8.819","article-title":"Progress on a cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion","volume":"46","author":"RS Lazarus","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350551.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8721.00003","article-title":"The structure of current affect: Controversies and emerging consensus","volume":"8","author":"LF Barrett","year":"1999","journal-title":"Curr Direct Psychol Sci"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0350551.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1037\/h0077714","article-title":"A circumplex model of affect.","volume":"39","author":"JA Russell","year":"1980","journal-title":"J Personal Soc Psychol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0350551.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.4258\/hir.2018.24.4.309","article-title":"Arousal and valence classification model based on long short-term memory and DEAP Data for mental healthcare management","volume":"24","author":"EJ Choi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Healthc Inform Res"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107974","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2020.107974","article-title":"Physiological correlates of subjective emotional valence and arousal dynamics while viewing films","volume":"157","author":"W Sato","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350551.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1177\/0261927X20967028","article-title":"Natural language analysis and the psychology of verbal behavior: the past, present, and future states of the field","volume":"40","author":"RL Boyd","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Lang Soc Psychol"},{"issue":"44","key":"pone.0350551.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11203","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1802331115","article-title":"Facebook language predicts depression in medical records","volume":"115","author":"JC Eichstaedt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0350551.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1080\/15325024.2014.949141","article-title":"An interpretative phenomenological analysis of stress and well-being in emergency medical dispatchers","volume":"20","author":"K Adams","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Loss Trauma"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0350551.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1037\/a0026850","article-title":"PTSD and depressive symptoms in 911 telecommunicators: the role of peritraumatic distress and world assumptions in predicting risk","volume":"5","author":"MM Lilly","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol Trauma: Theor Res Pract Policy"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350551.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1186\/s13049-024-01228-8","article-title":"112 What\u2019s your emergency? Overview of mental health and sleep disorders among emergency medical dispatchers in a French 112 call center","volume":"32","author":"L Giaume","year":"2024","journal-title":"Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0350551.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijnurstu.2014.11.004","article-title":"Determinants and prevalence of burnout in emergency nurses: a systematic review of 25 years of research","volume":"52","author":"J Adriaenssens","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int J Nurs Stud"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0350551.ref019","first-page":"220","article-title":"Suicidal ideation, plans, and attempts among public safety personnel in Canada","volume":"59","author":"RN Carleton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Can Psychol\/Psychologie canadienne"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0350551.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-6486.00300","article-title":"Work relationships in telephone call centres: understanding emotional exhaustion and employee withdrawal","volume":"39","author":"S Deery","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Manage Stud"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0350551.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1108\/09604521311312255","article-title":"The impact of call centre stressors on inbound and outbound call\u2010centre agent burnout","volume":"23","author":"M Rod","year":"2013","journal-title":"Manag Serv Qual: Int J"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0350551.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1136\/emj.2010.094342","article-title":"Paramedics and the effects of shift work on sleep: a literature review","volume":"29","author":"S Sofianopoulos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emerg Med J"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0350551.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2016.12.007","article-title":"Shift work and shift work sleep disorder: clinical and organizational perspectives","volume":"151","author":"EM Wickwire","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chest"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0350551.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1192\/bjb.2020.44","article-title":"The mental health of doctors during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"45","author":"N Galbraith","year":"2021","journal-title":"BJPsych Bull"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref025","volume-title":"The use of counselling skills in the emergency services","author":"A Hetherington","year":"2001"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0350551.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1177\/019394599701900303","article-title":"Social support and network conflict in firefighters and paramedics","volume":"19","author":"RD Beaton","year":"1997","journal-title":"West J Nurs Res"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0350551.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1080\/02678370903057317","article-title":"What makes an incident critical for ambulance workers? Emotional outcomes and implications for intervention","volume":"23","author":"J Halpern","year":"2009","journal-title":"Work Stress"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350551.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1037\/tra0000108","article-title":"Workplace belongingness, distress, and resilience in emergency service workers","volume":"9","author":"J Shakespeare-Finch","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychol Trauma"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0350551.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1037\/a0024204","article-title":"Posttraumatic growth, meaning in life, and life satisfaction in response to trauma.","volume":"4","author":"KN Triplett","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol Trauma: Theor Res Pract Policy"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0350551.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2013.01.007","article-title":"Relationship between emotional experience and resilience: an fMRI study in fire-fighters","volume":"51","author":"E Reynaud","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0350551.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1037\/a0021786","article-title":"Flexible emotional responsiveness in trait resilience","volume":"11","author":"CE Waugh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0350551.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1037\/a0014976","article-title":"A process model of adolescents\u2019 triangulation into parents\u2019 marital conflict: the role of emotional reactivity","volume":"23","author":"C Buehler","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Fam Psychol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0350551.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1112","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00337","article-title":"The relations of regulation and emotionality to children\u2019s externalizing and internalizing problem behavior","volume":"72","author":"N Eisenberg","year":"2001","journal-title":"Child Dev"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0350551.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2007.01032.x","article-title":"Adolescents\u2019 cognitive and emotional responses to marital hostility","volume":"78","author":"C Buehler","year":"2007","journal-title":"Child Dev"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0350551.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797615627625","article-title":"When is an adolescent an adult? Assessing cognitive control in emotional and nonemotional contexts","volume":"27","author":"AO Cohen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychol Sci"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100642","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2019.100642","article-title":"Socioeconomic hardship and delayed reward discounting: associations with working memory and emotional reactivity","volume":"37","author":"A Oshri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dev Cogn Neurosci"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0350551.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1037\/a0013341","article-title":"Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: positive and negative urgency","volume":"134","author":"MA Cyders","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350551.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.133.1.1","article-title":"Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: a meta-analytic study","volume":"133","author":"Y Bar-Haim","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0350551.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn849","article-title":"The stressed hippocampus, synaptic plasticity and lost memories","volume":"3","author":"JJ Kim","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0350551.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1037\/bne0000128","article-title":"The bidirectional relation between emotional reactivity and sleep: from disruption to recovery","volume":"130","author":"E Altena","year":"2016","journal-title":"Behav Neurosci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350551.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1037\/a0013823","article-title":"Reacting to and recovering from a stressful situation: the negative affectivity-physiological arousal relationship","volume":"14","author":"KL Zellars","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Occup Health Psychol"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0350551.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1861","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-024-01241-6","article-title":"Adolescent emotional reactivity in family and school contexts: prospective links to adolescent psychopathology","volume":"52","author":"S-C Chiang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Res Child Adolesc Psychopathol"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0350551.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1002\/da.20762","article-title":"Childhood social environment, emotional reactivity to stress, and mood and anxiety disorders across the life course","volume":"27","author":"KA McLaughlin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Depress Anxiety"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.02.028","article-title":"The role of emotion dysregulation in negative affect reactivity to a trauma cue: differential associations through elicited posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms","volume":"267","author":"AM Raudales","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0350551.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.86.2.320","article-title":"Resilient individuals use positive emotions to bounce back from negative emotional experiences","volume":"86","author":"MM Tugade","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2018.05.035","article-title":"Mental distress and language use: linguistic analysis of discussion forum posts","volume":"87","author":"M Lyons","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput Hum Behav"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350551.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1515\/eujal-2022-0022","article-title":"Structural and functional markers of language signify the symptomatic effect of depression: A systematic literature review","volume":"11","author":"A Savekar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur J Appl Linguist"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0350551.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1177\/2167702617747074","article-title":"In an absolute state: elevated use of absolutist words is a marker specific to anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation","volume":"6","author":"M Al-Mosaiwi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Sci"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779039","DOI":"10.3389\/fdgth.2022.779039","article-title":"Toward linguistic recognition of generalized anxiety disorder","volume":"4","author":"L Rook","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Digit Health"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0350551.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2196\/36828","article-title":"Acoustic and linguistic features of impromptu speech and their association with anxiety: validation study","volume":"9","author":"BG Teferra","year":"2022","journal-title":"JMIR Ment Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0350551.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0299462","article-title":"Linguistic analysis of health anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"19","author":"AD Peterson","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2022.09.094","article-title":"The association of language style matching in text messages with mood and anxiety symptoms","volume":"206","author":"CA Stamatis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Procedia Comput Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0350551.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.1995.1017","article-title":"The feeling of another\u2032s knowing: prosody and filled pauses as cues to listeners about the metacognitive states of speakers","volume":"34","author":"SE Brennan","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Memory Lang"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0350551.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0956-7976.2004.00741.x","article-title":"Linguistic markers of psychological change surrounding September 11, 2001","volume":"15","author":"MA Cohn","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychol Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0350551.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1037\/pspp0000187","article-title":"Depression, negative emotionality, and self-referential language: A multi-lab, multi-measure, and multi-language-task research synthesis","volume":"116","author":"AM Tackman","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2025.01.139","article-title":"Using natural language processing to identify patterns associated with depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"376","author":"A Beech","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0350551.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2196\/jmir.7276","article-title":"Assessing suicide risk and emotional distress in chinese social media: a text mining and machine learning study","volume":"19","author":"Q Cheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Med Internet Res"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref058","first-page":"214","article-title":"Understanding and measuring psychological stress using social media","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media","author":"S Chandra Guntuku","year":"2019"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350551.ref059","article-title":"Natural language processing and machine learning of electronic health records for prediction of first-time suicide attempts","volume":"4","author":"FR Tsui","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMIA Open"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863100","DOI":"10.3389\/fdata.2022.863100","article-title":"BurnoutEnsemble: augmented intelligence to detect indications for burnout in clinical psychology","volume":"5","author":"G Merhbene","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Big Data"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0350551.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1037\/1089-2680.5.2.100","article-title":"The psychology of life stories","volume":"5","author":"DP McAdams","year":"2001","journal-title":"Rev General Psychol"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0350551.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-012-0314-x","article-title":"Norms of valence, arousal, and dominance for 13,915 English lemmas","volume":"45","author":"AB Warriner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref063","volume-title":"Practical Text Mining and Statistical Analysis for Non-structured Text Data Applications","author":"G Miner","year":"2012"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0350551.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7967(94)00075-U","article-title":"The structure of negative emotional states: comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories","volume":"33","author":"PF Lovibond","year":"1995","journal-title":"Behav Res Ther"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0350551.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1007\/s11896-020-09428-5","article-title":"Emotional reactivity and police expertise in use-of-force decision-making","volume":"36","author":"VP Ta","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Police Crim Psych"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref066","volume-title":"The development and psychometric properties of LIWC-22","author":"RL Boyd","year":"2022"},{"issue":"30","key":"pone.0350551.ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.00774","article-title":"quanteda: An R package for the quantitative analysis of textual data","volume":"3","author":"K Benoit","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Open Source Softw"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0350551.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1037\/met0000349","article-title":"Closed- and open-vocabulary approaches to text analysis: a review, quantitative comparison, and recommendations","volume":"26","author":"JC Eichstaedt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychol Methods"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0350551.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.2307\/20445398","article-title":"Measuring emotional expression with the linguistic inquiry and word count","volume":"120","author":"JH Kahn","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0350551.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.12171","article-title":"Speaking under pressure: low linguistic complexity is linked to high physiological and emotional stress reactivity","volume":"51","author":"LR Saslow","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0350551.ref071","article-title":"Approaches to studying emotion using physiological responses to spoken narratives: a scoping review","volume":"61","author":"M-A Savard","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.54.101601.145041","article-title":"Psychological aspects of natural language. use: our words, our selves","volume":"54","author":"JW Pennebaker","year":"2003","journal-title":"Annu Rev Psychol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0350551.ref073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1080\/02699930903407948","article-title":"Emotion regulation in depression: relation to cognitive inhibition","volume":"24","author":"J Joormann","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cogn Emot"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0350551.ref074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2010.12.006","article-title":"Rumination as a transdiagnostic factor in depression and anxiety","volume":"49","author":"KA McLaughlin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Behav Res Ther"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2022.112008","article-title":"The effects of two individual differences in emotional process on psychological problems: The mediating role of emotion dysregulation between emotional reactivity and distress","volume":"203","author":"C G\u00f6kda\u011f","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pers Indiv Diff"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0350551.ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1007\/s11205-009-9441-x","article-title":"Emergency workers\u2019 quality of life: the protective role of sense of community, efficacy beliefs and coping strategies","volume":"94","author":"E Cicognani","year":"2009","journal-title":"Soc Indic Res"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2016.12.046","article-title":"Latent variable analysis of positive and negative valence processing focused on symptom and behavioral units of analysis in mood and anxiety disorders","volume":"216","author":"MP Paulus","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0350551.ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.87.2.266","article-title":"Feelings or words? Understanding the content in self-report ratings of experienced emotion","volume":"87","author":"LF Barrett","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/S0262-4079(11)62167-2","volume-title":"The Secret Life of Pronouns: What Our Words Say About Us","author":"JW Pennebaker","year":"2011"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0350551.ref080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.3758\/CABN.6.2.110","article-title":"Processing emotional pictures and words: effects of valence and arousal","volume":"6","author":"EA Kensinger","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0350551.ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1017\/S1049023X19004990","article-title":"Exploring the physical and mental health challenges associated with emergency service call-taking and dispatching: a review of the literature","volume":"34","author":"EC Smith","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prehosp Disaster Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0350551.ref082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1002\/smi.2821","article-title":"Models of first responder coping: police officers as a unique population","volume":"34","author":"E Arble","year":"2018","journal-title":"Stress Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0350551.ref083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1002\/smi.2615","article-title":"Positive psychological factors are associated with lower PTSD symptoms among police officers: post Hurricane Katrina","volume":"30","author":"EC McCanlies","year":"2014","journal-title":"Stress Health"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0350551.ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810","DOI":"10.1017\/S1049023X22001479","article-title":"Coping strategies for exposure to trauma situations in first responders: a systematic review","volume":"37","author":"AM D\u00edaz-Tamayo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prehosp Disaster Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0350551.ref085","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2020.20030305","article-title":"The critical relationship between anxiety and depression","volume":"177","author":"NH Kalin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0350551.ref086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1192\/apt.11.5.338","article-title":"Emotional and physical health benefits of expressive writing","volume":"11","author":"KA Baikie","year":"2005","journal-title":"Adv Psychiatr Treat"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref087","volume-title":"Artificial intelligence implementation in emergency communications centers","author":"Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency","year":"2025"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0350551.ref088","first-page":"239438","article-title":"Dictionary based approach to sentiment analysis-a review","volume":"2","author":"T Hardeniya","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int J Adv Eng Manage Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0350551.ref089","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-017-0121-9","article-title":"Sentiment analysis methods for understanding large-scale texts: a case for using continuum-scored words and word shift graphs","volume":"6","author":"AJ Reagan","year":"2017","journal-title":"EPJ Data Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0350551.ref090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imr.2016.03.004","article-title":"Cultural differences in emotion: differences in emotional arousal level between the East and the West","volume":"5","author":"N Lim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Integr Med Res"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref091","unstructured":"National 911 Program. Reclassification of the public safety telecommunicator FAQ. 2023."},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0350551.ref092","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691620927709","article-title":"Racial inequality in psychological research: trends of the past and recommendations for the future","volume":"15","author":"SO Roberts","year":"2020","journal-title":"Perspect Psychol Sci"},{"issue":"13","key":"pone.0350551.ref093","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7122","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18137122","article-title":"The moderating role of emotion regulation in the recall of negative autobiographical memories","volume":"18","author":"D Colombo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"pone.0350551.ref094","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2020","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.02020","article-title":"Retrospective ratings of emotions: the effects of age, daily tiredness, and personality","volume":"6","author":"A Mill","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front Psychol"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0350551","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T17:22:24Z","timestamp":1783531344000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0350551"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Iftikhar Ahmed","family":"Khan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]]},"references-count":94,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0350551","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]]}}}