{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T18:05:48Z","timestamp":1783965948674,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783900800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000066","name":"National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["K23 ES032459"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K23 ES032459"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000066","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006492","name":"Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01AI137364"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI137364"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006492","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000066","name":"National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P30 ES001247"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30 ES001247"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000066","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    The rate of respiratory viral infection (RVI) associated with acute air pollution exposure is well established, but whether bacterial and viral infections respond similarly to traffic related air pollution (TRAP) exposure is less well understood. Using a novel seasonal time-stratified case-crossover design and conditional logistic regression, we separately estimated the rate of hospitalization for 465 patients with RVI, respiratory bacterial infection (RBI), or combined respiratory viral and bacterial infection (RVBI) associated with increased ambient particulate matter\u2009\u22642.5 \u00b5m (PM\n                    <jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    ), black carbon (BC), nitrogen dioxide (NO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    ) and carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations in the previous 1, 2, and 3 weeks (lag days 0\u20136, 7\u201313, 14\u201320). In a novel approach, a four-physician panel adjudicated each case of infection to accurately classify the type of infection present and only patients with the highest diagnostic certainty were enrolled in this study. Associations were strongest between TRAP and RVI at the 0\u20136 lag period, with fewer, less precise associations at later lag times for RVBI and RBI. Each 2.6 \u00b5g\/m\n                    <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                    increase in PM\n                    <jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    on lag days 0\u20136 was associated with a 22.1% increased rate of RVI hospitalization (95% CI: 1.6%, 46.7%). Each 0.1 \u00b5g\/m\n                    <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                    increase in BC was associated with a 30.0% increase (95% CI: 5.0%, 61.1%) in the rate of hospitalization for RVI. Rates of hospitalization for RVI associated with increased PM\n                    <jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    were generally largest for lag days 0\u20136 and 7\u201313. The RVI\/BC rate ratio was larger for females than males for days 0\u201313, but not for PM\n                    <jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    and NO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    . Short term increases in PM\n                    <jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    , BC, NO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    , and CO concentrations (markers of traffic pollution) were associated with an increased rate of RVI hospitalization, while sex-specific associations were observed between BC and RVI for females. Further study of the mechanism underlying the effect of TRAP on RVI is needed.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0352323","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T17:30:22Z","timestamp":1783963822000},"page":"e0352323","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Triggering of viral and bacterial respiratory infection hospitalizations by traffic pollution exposure in a cohort of hospitalized adults"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1990-5542","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Daniel P.","family":"Croft","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8384-6180","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Md Rayhanul","family":"Islam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kelly","family":"Thevenet-Morrison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carl J.","family":"Johnston","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark J.","family":"Utell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Philip K.","family":"Hopke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steve N.","family":"Georas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0422-5875","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Augusto A.","family":"Litonjua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8603-660X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Derick R.","family":"Peterson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1140-7845","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Soumyaroop","family":"Bhattacharya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Baran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chinyi","family":"Chu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anthony","family":"Corbett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Peasley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angela R.","family":"Branche","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edward E.","family":"Walsh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew N.","family":"McCall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sally W.","family":"Thurston","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ann R.","family":"Falsey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas J.","family":"Mariani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David Q.","family":"Rich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]]},"reference":[{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0352323.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201709-1883OC","article-title":"Short-term elevation of fine particulate matter air pollution and acute lower respiratory infection","volume":"198","author":"BD Horne","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0352323.ref002","article-title":"Ambient air pollution and risk of respiratory infection among adults: evidence from the multiethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA)","volume":"8","author":"K Kirwa","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open Respir Res"},{"issue":"173","key":"pone.0352323.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230259","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0259-2023","article-title":"Fine particulate matter manipulates immune response to exacerbate microbial pathogenesis in the respiratory tract","volume":"33","author":"J Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur Respir Rev"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0352323.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-024-01505-6","article-title":"Change in rate of healthcare encounters for respiratory infection from air pollution exposure after improved vehicle emissions standards in New York State","volume":"17","author":"DP Croft","year":"2024","journal-title":"Air Qual Atmos Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0352323.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201810-691OC","article-title":"The association between respiratory infection and air pollution in the setting of air quality policy and economic change","volume":"16","author":"DP Croft","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann Am Thorac Soc"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0352323.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1038\/s41370-024-00710-w","article-title":"Comparison of the rate of healthcare encounters for influenza from source-specific PM2.5 before and after tier 3 vehicle standards in New York state","volume":"35","author":"DP Croft","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0352323.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b04295","article-title":"Associations between source-specific particulate matter and respiratory infections in New York state adults","volume":"54","author":"DP Croft","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ Sci Technol"},{"key":"pone.0352323.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116923","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2024.116923","article-title":"Different effects of air pollutant concentrations on influenza A and B in Sichuan, China","volume":"284","author":"Z Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol Environ Saf"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0352323.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127009","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP12145","article-title":"Associations between Short-term exposure to ambient air pollution and influenza: an individual-level case-crossover study in Guangzhou, China","volume":"131","author":"R Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"pone.0352323.ref010","volume-title":"Traffic-related air pollution: a critical review of the literature on emissions, exposure, and health effects","author":"HEI","year":"2010"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0352323.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201807-1287OC","article-title":"Wood smoke exposure alters human inflammatory responses to viral infection in a sex-specific manner. A randomized, placebo-controlled study","volume":"199","author":"ME Rebuli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0352323.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics10070363","article-title":"Indoor secondary pollutants cannot be ignored: third-hand smoke","volume":"10","author":"J-X Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Toxics"},{"key":"pone.0352323.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.18332\/tid\/123845","article-title":"Smoking increases the risk of infectious diseases: a narrative review","volume":"18","author":"C Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tob Induc Dis"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0352323.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202106-1484OC","article-title":"Long-term air pollution exposure and pneumonia-related mortality in a large pooled European cohort","volume":"205","author":"S Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0352323.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3346\/jkms.2023.38.e68","article-title":"Association between air pollution and viral infection in severe acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"38","author":"J Choi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Korean Med Sci"},{"key":"pone.0352323.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.2147\/JAA.S364845","article-title":"Risk factors for respiratory viral infections: a spotlight on climate change and air pollution","volume":"16","author":"AJ Burbank","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Asthma Allergy"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0352323.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(19)30241-4","article-title":"Associations between historical residential redlining and current age-adjusted rates of emergency department visits due to asthma across eight cities in California: an ecological study","volume":"4","author":"A Nardone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Planet Health"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0352323.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202112-2707OC","article-title":"Historical redlining impacts contemporary environmental and asthma-related outcomes in black adults","volume":"206","author":"AJ Schuyler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0352323.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10383","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-65361-3","article-title":"A four-gene signature from blood to exclude bacterial etiology of lower respiratory tract infection in adults","volume":"16","author":"AR Falsey","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"17","key":"pone.0352323.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7387","DOI":"10.1021\/es2013984","article-title":"Characterization of residential wood combustion particles using the two-wavelength aethalometer","volume":"45","author":"Y Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ Sci Technol"},{"key":"pone.0352323.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123708","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2024.123708","article-title":"Long term trends in source apportioned particle number concentrations in Rochester NY","volume":"347","author":"PK Hopke","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ Pollut"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0352323.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/S1465-9972(99)00005-7","article-title":"Health effects of exposure to ambient carbon monoxide","volume":"1","author":"JA Raub","year":"1999","journal-title":"Chemosphere - Glob Change Sci"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0352323.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3363","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-25-3363-2025","article-title":"Population exposure to outdoor NO2, black carbon, and ultrafine and fine particles over Paris with multi-scale modelling down to the street scale","volume":"25","author":"SJ Park","year":"2025","journal-title":"Atmos Chem Phys"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0352323.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1097\/00001648-200103000-00010","article-title":"Referent selection in case-crossover analyses of acute health effects of air pollution","volume":"12","author":"D Levy","year":"2001","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0352323.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a115853","article-title":"The case-crossover design: a method for studying transient effects on the risk of acute events","volume":"133","author":"M Maclure","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"26","key":"pone.0352323.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2456","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1802313","article-title":"Making neighborhood-disadvantage metrics accessible - the neighborhood atlas","volume":"378","author":"AJH Kind","year":"2018","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"pone.0352323.ref027","article-title":"Change in rate of healthcare encounters for respiratory infection from air pollution exposure after improved vehicle emissions standards in New York State","author":"DP Croft","year":"2024","journal-title":"Air Qual Atmos Health"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0352323.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127009","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP12145","article-title":"Associations between short-term exposure to ambient air pollution and influenza: an individual-level case-crossover study in Guangzhou, China","volume":"131","author":"R Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0352323.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1007\/s11869-024-01505-6","article-title":"Change in rate of healthcare encounters for respiratory infection from air pollution exposure after improved vehicle emissions standards in New York State","volume":"17","author":"DP Croft","year":"2024","journal-title":"Air Qual Atmos Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0352323.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/v14051071","article-title":"Collateral impact of public health and social measures on respiratory virus activity during the COVID-19 pandemic 2020-2021","volume":"14","author":"C Achangwa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0352323.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1097\/EE9.0000000000000195","article-title":"Ecological studies of COVID-19 and air pollution: how useful are they?","volume":"6","author":"PJ Villeneuve","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ Epidemiol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0352323.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2022.04.013","article-title":"Mucosal immune responses to infection and vaccination in the respiratory tract","volume":"55","author":"RC Mettelman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0352323.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1328","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-019-0447-0","article-title":"Direct interactions with influenza promote bacterial adherence during respiratory infections","volume":"4","author":"HM Rowe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat Microbiol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0352323.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1782","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1601166","article-title":"Sex drives dimorphic immune responses to viral infections","volume":"198","author":"S Ghosh","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Immunol"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0352323.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1513\/pats.201001-014AW","article-title":"Cellular response to cigarette smoke and oxidants","volume":"7","author":"AM Cantin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc Am Thorac Soc"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0352323.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.202502-219ST","article-title":"Climate change and respiratory health: opportunities to contribute to environmental justice: an official American Thoracic Society workshop report","volume":"22","author":"DP Croft","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ann Am Thorac Soc"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0352323.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2024.07.003","article-title":"ACPM position statement: air pollution and environmental justice","volume":"67","author":"RJ Freeman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am J Prev Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0352323.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.00108419","article-title":"Exposure measurement error in time-series studies of air pollution: concepts and consequences","volume":"108","author":"SL Zeger","year":"2000","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0352323","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T17:30:27Z","timestamp":1783963827000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0352323"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Chris Fook Sheng","family":"Ng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0352323","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]]}}}