{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T18:09:09Z","timestamp":1784138949921,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784073600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"African Consortium in Modelling for Effective Vector Control","award":["INV-047049"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INV-047049"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Long-lasting Insecticide Nets (LLINs) are central to malaria prevention, but their effectiveness is threatened by the increasing pyrethroid resistance and low bed net utilization in malaria-endemic regions globally. This study formulates a genotype-specific compartmental model accounting for malaria transmission. It incorporates the blocking and insecticidal killing effects of LLINs, and pyrethroid-induced fitness costs, to evaluate the impact of LLIN utilization on malaria and resistance dynamics. Reproductive numbers with and without LLINs were derived, and sensitivity analysis performed. This analysis showed that the utilization of LLINs and their effectiveness against pyrethroid-resistant vectors have the strongest effect in reducing malaria transmission in both Sobol and partial rank correlation coefficient PRCC analyses. The baseline scenario and four LLIN utilization scenarios (standard, three-year, two-year and one-year) were simulated over nine years to track malaria transmission, mosquito population and evolution of resistance. These were assessed, with pyrethroid-only nets deployed in the first two campaigns and pyrethroid piperonyl butoxide (PBO) nets deployed in the third campaign. Results showed that, despite an initial LLIN coverage of 81%, protection against malaria infection by both pyrethroid-only and pyrethroid-PBO nets was not sustained over the campaign period and this worsened with lower utilization levels. Pyrethroid-PBO nets provided greater mosquito suppression and better protection under standard utilization, but their advantage over pyrethroid-only nets declined with lower utilization. The study further demonstrated that repeated pyrethroid-only campaigns accelerate the evolution of pyrethroid resistance, but PBO nets counteract this trend particularly when such resistance carries a higher fitness cost. Although lower utilization levels slowed resistance evolution, these scenarios do not represent an epidemiologically viable malaria control strategy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0353301","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T17:30:20Z","timestamp":1784136620000},"page":"e0353301","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Modelling the impact of mosquito bed net utilization on malaria transmission and evolution of pyrethroid resistance"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7346-8980","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ivan","family":"Sseguya","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph Y. T.","family":"Mugisha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juliet N.","family":"Nakakawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Prashanth","family":"Selvaraj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonathan","family":"Kayondo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0353301.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.30875\/9789287076717","volume-title":"World Malaria Report 2024: Addressing Inequity in the Global Malaria Response","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2024"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref002","volume-title":"World Malaria Report 2024: Addressing the Threat of Antimalarial Drug Resistance","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2025"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2635","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-22896-5","article-title":"The impact of stopping and starting indoor residual spraying on malaria burden in Uganda","volume":"12","author":"JF Namuganga","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0353301.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2024-091569","article-title":"Integrated malaria vector control strategies and their effectiveness in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review protocol for interventional studies","volume":"15","author":"G Kombate","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref005","article-title":"Stratified sustainable vector control strategies and measures for malaria control and elimination in China: a 70 year journey","volume":"389","author":"Q Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-024-06621-x","article-title":"Elevating larval source management as a key strategy for controlling malaria and other vector-borne diseases in Africa","volume":"18","author":"F Okumu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0353301.ref007","article-title":"House modifications for preventing malaria","volume":"10","author":"T Fox","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-024-05236-y","article-title":"Larviciding for malaria control and elimination in Africa","volume":"24","author":"G Newby","year":"2025","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref009","volume-title":"WHO guidelines for malaria","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2023"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-022-01005-8","article-title":"Effectiveness of indoor residual spraying on malaria control: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"11","author":"Y Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect Dis Poverty"},{"issue":"7572","key":"pone.0353301.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1038\/nature15535","article-title":"The effect of malaria control on Plasmodium falciparum in Africa between 2000 and 2015","volume":"526","author":"S Bhatt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-025-05422-6","article-title":"Impact of indoor residual spraying on malaria incidence in Ugandan prisons: an interrupted time series analysis","volume":"24","author":"J Byaruhanga","year":"2025","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-016-1652-4","article-title":"Assessing the effect of indoor residual spraying (IRS) on malaria morbidity in Northern Uganda: a before and after study","volume":"16","author":"BB Tukei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0353301.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a026823","article-title":"Current and Future Prospects for Preventing Malaria Transmission via the Use of Insecticides","volume":"7","author":"H Ranson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0353301.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(21)00216-3","article-title":"Threats to the effectiveness of insecticide-treated bednets for malaria control: thinking beyond insecticide resistance","volume":"9","author":"SW Lindsay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32027","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-83689-6","article-title":"Temporal evolution of insecticide resistance and bionomics in Anopheles funestus, a key malaria vector in Uganda","volume":"14","author":"A Oruni","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fitd.2021.739771","article-title":"Malaria Transmission, Vector Diversity, and Insecticide Resistance at a Peri-Urban Site in the Forest Zone of Ghana","volume":"2","author":"Y Akuamoah-Boateng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front Trop Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-022-07596-9","article-title":"Marked aggravation of pyrethroid resistance in major malaria vectors in Malawi between 2014 and 2021 is partly linked with increased expression of P450 alleles","volume":"22","author":"BD Menze","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-04833-z","article-title":"Insecticide resistance status of Anopheles arabiensis in irrigated and non-irrigated areas in western Kenya","volume":"14","author":"PW Orondo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref020","volume-title":"Guidance on the prioritization of insecticide-treated nets in situations where resources are limited","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2023"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref021","volume-title":"WHO Guidelines for Malaria","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2023"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref022","unstructured":"Kwiringira A, Nanziri C, Migamba SM, Ahirirwe SR, Kadobera D, Ario AR. Ownership and use of long-lasting insecticidal nets and factors associated, immediately after a mass distribution campaign in Uganda: A cross-sectional survey of fourteen districts. 2021."},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-022-04302-7","article-title":"LLIN Evaluation in Uganda Project (LLINEUP2)-Factors associated with coverage and use of long\u2011lasting insecticidal nets following the 2020-21 national mass distribution campaign: a cross-sectional survey of 12 districts","volume":"21","author":"J Okiring","year":"2022","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-022-04416-y","article-title":"Insecticide-treated bed net use and associated factors among households having under-five children in East Africa: a multilevel binary logistic regression analysis","volume":"22","author":"TF Seyoum","year":"2023","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-018-2178-8","article-title":"Malaria knowledge and bed net use in three transmission settings in southern Africa","volume":"17","author":"M Kanyangarara","year":"2018","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref026","first-page":"2022","article-title":"LLIN Evaluation in Uganda Project (LLINEUP)\u2013The Durability of Long-Lasting Insecticidal Nets Treated with and without Piperonyl Butoxide (PBO) in Uganda","volume":"2022","author":"F Mechan","year":"2022","journal-title":"BioRxiv"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3589","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-23707-7","article-title":"Maps and metrics of insecticide-treated net access, use, and nets-per-capita in Africa from 2000-2020","volume":"12","author":"A Bertozzi-Villa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/s00285-020-01503-z","article-title":"Long-lasting insecticidal nets and the quest for malaria eradication: a mathematical modeling approach","volume":"81","author":"I Enahoro","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Math Biol"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0353301.ref029","article-title":"An Epidemiological Model of the Effects of Insecticide-Treated Bed Nets on Malaria Transmission","volume":"10","author":"PLG Birget","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-6-17","article-title":"Mathematical evaluation of community level impact of combining bed nets and indoor residual spraying upon malaria transmission in areas where the main vectors are Anopheles arabiensis mosquitoes","volume":"6","author":"FO Okumu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1005327","article-title":"A Two-Locus Model of the Evolution of Insecticide Resistance to Inform and Optimise Public Health Insecticide Deployment Strategies","volume":"13","author":"B Levick","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Comput Biol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-018-3025-z","article-title":"Modelling the impact of insecticide-based control interventions on the evolution of insecticide resistance and disease transmission","volume":"11","author":"S Barbosa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref033","unstructured":"Msola AA. Mathematical modelling of malaria based on Uganda data. 2018."},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-024-05008-8","article-title":"LLIN Evaluation in Uganda Project (LLINEUP): modelling the impact of COVID-19-related disruptions on delivery of long-lasting insecticidal nets on malaria indicators in Uganda","volume":"23","author":"J Okiring","year":"2024","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.16090","article-title":"The impact of pyrethroid resistance on the efficacy and effectiveness of bednets for malaria control in Africa","volume":"5","author":"TS Churcher","year":"2016","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mbs.2019.02.008","article-title":"Mathematics of an epidemiology-genetics model for assessing the role of insecticides resistance on malaria transmission dynamics","volume":"312","author":"J Mohammed-Awel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Math Biosci"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref037","unstructured":"National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI). Allele. https:\/\/www.genome.gov\/genetics-glossary\/Allele 2024. 2025 August 11."},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref038","unstructured":"Study com. Genotype Definition, Types & Examples. https:\/\/study.com\/academy\/lesson\/what-are-genotypes-definition-examples-quiz.html 2025 August 11."},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref039","article-title":"Mathematical modelling of vector-borne diseases and insecticide resistance evolution","volume":"23","author":"MLG Kuniyoshi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0353301.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268809002040","article-title":"Assessing the effects of temperature on the population of Aedes aegypti, the vector of dengue","volume":"137","author":"HM Yang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-5564(02)00108-6","article-title":"Reproduction numbers and sub-threshold endemic equilibria for compartmental models of disease transmission","volume":"180","author":"P van den Driessche","year":"2002","journal-title":"Math Biosci"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1051\/proc\/201862123","article-title":"An Introduction to The Basic Reproduction Number in Mathematical Epidemiology","volume":"62","author":"A Perasso","year":"2018","journal-title":"ESAIM: ProcS"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0353301.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.3390\/genes11020143","article-title":"An Experimental Hut Evaluation of PBO-Based and Pyrethroid-Only Nets against the Malaria Vector Anopheles funestus Reveals a Loss of Bed Nets Efficacy Associated with GSTe2 Metabolic Resistance","volume":"11","author":"BD Menze","year":"2020","journal-title":"Genes (Basel)"},{"issue":"12","key":"pone.0353301.ref044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2010.08.008","article-title":"An experimental hut evaluation of PermaNet(\u00ae) 3.0, a deltamethrin-piperonyl butoxide combination net, against pyrethroid-resistant Anopheles gambiae and Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes in southern Benin","volume":"104","author":"R N\u2019Guessan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-020-03549-2","article-title":"Variation of physical durability between LLIN products and net use environments: summary of findings from four African countries","volume":"20","author":"A Kilian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref046","volume-title":"Achieving universal coverage with long-lasting insecticidal nets in malaria control","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2014"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0353301.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/s11538-024-01409-7","article-title":"Modeling the Impact of Seasonality on Mosquito Population Dynamics: Insights for Vector Control Strategies","volume":"87","author":"J Baafi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Bull Math Biol"},{"issue":"43","key":"pone.0353301.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2009.0178","article-title":"The interaction of seasonal forcing and immunity and the resonance dynamics of malaria","volume":"7","author":"DZ Childs","year":"2010","journal-title":"J R Soc Interface"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8017187","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8017187","article-title":"The Impact of Insecticide Pre-Exposure on Longevity, Feeding Succession, and Egg Batch Size of Wild Anopheles gambiae s.l","volume":"2020","author":"G Msangi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Trop Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-021-03798-9","article-title":"Insecticide resistance exerts significant fitness costs in immature stages of Anopheles gambiae in western Kenya","volume":"20","author":"JK Osoro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"02","key":"pone.0353301.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1142\/S0218339020400100","article-title":"Impact Of Adaptive Mosquito Behavior And Insecticide-treated Nets On Malaria Prevalence","volume":"28","author":"CN Ngonghala","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Biol Syst"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.16039.2","article-title":"Fitness cost of insecticide resistance on the life-traits of a Anopheles coluzzii population from the city of Yaound\u00e9, Cameroon","volume":"5","author":"DL Nkahe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wellcome Open Res"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1090\/conm\/793\/15908","article-title":"A genetic-epidemiology modeling framework for malaria mosquitoes and disease","volume":"793","author":"J Mohammed-Awel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Contemporary Mathematics"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0353301.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007485314000091","article-title":"Increased production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and reduced adult life span in an insecticide-resistant strain of Anopheles gambiae","volume":"104","author":"D Otali","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bull Entomol Res"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0353301.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1603\/ME10121","article-title":"Energetic cost of insecticide resistance in Culex pipiens mosquitoes","volume":"48","author":"A Rivero","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1006108","article-title":"Probability of Transmission of Malaria from Mosquito to Human Is Regulated by Mosquito Parasite Density in Na\u00efve and Vaccinated Hosts","volume":"13","author":"TS Churcher","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.00626","article-title":"Predicting mosquito infection from Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte density and estimating the reservoir of infection","volume":"2","author":"TS Churcher","year":"2013","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.34463","article-title":"Predicting the likelihood and intensity of mosquito infection from sex specific Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte density","volume":"7","author":"J Bradley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Elife"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-025-05307-8","article-title":"Severe malaria readmissions in Northern Uganda: a cross-sectional study","volume":"24","author":"J Olum","year":"2025","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-019-3076-4","article-title":"Impact of vector control interventions on malaria transmission intensity, outdoor vector biting rates and Anopheles mosquito species composition in Tororo, Uganda","volume":"18","author":"AK Musiime","year":"2019","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref061","unstructured":"Uganda Bureau of Statistics. The National Population and Housing Census 2024 \u2013 Final Report. 2024."},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-017-1685-3","article-title":"Optimization of mosquito egg production under mass rearing setting: effects of cage volume, blood meal source and adult population density for the malaria vector, Anopheles arabiensis","volume":"16","author":"W Mamai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-04092-4","article-title":"An overview of malarial Anopheles mosquito survival estimates in relation to methodology","volume":"13","author":"J Matthews","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref064","unstructured":"Balentine JR, Davis CP. How long will it take to recover from malaria?. https:\/\/www.medicinenet.com\/how_long_will_it_take_to_recover_from_malaria\/ask.htm 2018. 2025 April 24."},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0353301.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1011084","article-title":"Intervention reducing malaria parasite load in vector mosquitoes: No impact on Plasmodium falciparum extrinsic incubation period and the survival of Anopheles gambiae","volume":"19","author":"E Guissou","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref066","unstructured":"Target Malaria. Uganda Virtual Press Kit. 2025. 2025 January 14."},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-024-04982-3","article-title":"The behaviour of adult Anopheles gambiae, sub-Saharan Africa\u2019s principal malaria vector, and its relevance to malaria control: a review","volume":"23","author":"W Takken","year":"2024","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-023-04548-9","article-title":"Impacts of dual active-ingredient bed nets on the behavioural responses of pyrethroid resistant Anopheles gambiae determined by room-scale infrared video tracking","volume":"22","author":"K Gleave","year":"2023","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-6-130","article-title":"Bioefficacy of long-lasting insecticidal nets against pyrethroid-resistant populations of Anopheles gambiae s.s. from different malaria transmission zones in Uganda","volume":"6","author":"M Okia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-024-06372-9","article-title":"Efficacy of Interceptor G2, Royal Guard and PermaNet 3.0 against pyrethroid-resistant Anopheles gambiae s.l. from Za-Kpota, southern Benin: an experimental hut trial","volume":"17","author":"PM Sovegnon","year":"2024","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-022-04413-1","article-title":"Impact of different mosquito collection methods on indicators of Anopheles malaria vectors in Uganda","volume":"21","author":"HD Mawejje","year":"2022","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0353301.ref072","first-page":"277","article-title":"Mathematics of a single-locus model for assessing the impacts of pyrethroid resistance and temperature on population abundance of malaria mosquitoes","volume":"7","author":"SJ Brozak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect Dis Model"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-018-2571-3","article-title":"LLIN Evaluation in Uganda Project (LLINEUP): factors associated with ownership and use of long-lasting insecticidal nets in Uganda: a cross-sectional survey of 48 districts","volume":"17","author":"S Gonahasa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"10232","key":"pone.0353301.ref074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1292","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30214-2","article-title":"Effect of long-lasting insecticidal nets with and without piperonyl butoxide on malaria indicators in Uganda (LLINEUP): a pragmatic, cluster-randomised trial embedded in a national LLIN distribution campaign","volume":"395","author":"SG Staedke","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0353301.ref075","first-page":"21","article-title":"Characterization of historical seasonal and annual rainfall and temperature trends in selected climatological homogenous rainfall zones of Uganda","volume":"15","author":"J Majaliwa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Global Journal of Science Research"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-017-2135-4","article-title":"Uganda rainfall variability and prediction","volume":"132","author":"MR Jury","year":"2017","journal-title":"Theor Appl Climatol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-020-3151-x","article-title":"Taking the \u201cI\u201d out of LLINs: using insecticides in vector control tools other than long-lasting nets to fight malaria","volume":"19","author":"KP Paaijmans","year":"2020","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0353301.ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2024-017106","article-title":"Evaluating the impact of two next-generation long-lasting insecticidal nets on malaria incidence in Uganda: an interrupted time-series analysis using routine health facility data","volume":"10","author":"A Epstein","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMJ Glob Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-023-04727-8","article-title":"Effectiveness of piperonyl butoxide and pyrethroid-treated long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) versus pyrethroid-only LLINs with and without indoor residual spray against malaria infection: third year results of a cluster, randomised controlled, two-by-two factorial design trial in Tanzania","volume":"22","author":"N Protopopoff","year":"2023","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2269","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-025-23386-9","article-title":"Inequity in the use of long-lasting insecticidal nets before and after nationwide mass distribution campaign in 48 districts of Uganda: VERSE toolkit analysis","volume":"25","author":"J Okiring","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"10130","key":"pone.0353301.ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)30427-6","article-title":"Effectiveness of a long-lasting piperonyl butoxide-treated insecticidal net and indoor residual spray interventions, separately and together, against malaria transmitted by pyrethroid-resistant mosquitoes: a cluster, randomised controlled, two-by-two factorial design trial","volume":"391","author":"N Protopopoff","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0353301.ref082","article-title":"Piperonyl butoxide (PBO) combined with pyrethroids in insecticide-treated nets to prevent malaria in Africa","volume":"5","author":"K Gleave","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0353301.ref083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0003558","article-title":"LLIN Evaluation in Uganda Project (LLINEUP2) - Effect of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) treated with pyrethroid plus pyriproxyfen vs LLINs treated with pyrethroid plus piperonyl butoxide in Uganda: A cluster-randomised trial","volume":"5","author":"S Gonahasa","year":"2025","journal-title":"PLOS Glob Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2025.106508","article-title":"Anopheles mosquito exposure is associated with age, gender and bed net use in areas in Uganda experiencing varying malaria transmission intensity","volume":"91","author":"SL Blanken","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Infect"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref085","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-10-202","article-title":"Mathematical models of malaria--a review","volume":"10","author":"S Mandal","year":"2011","journal-title":"Malar J"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0353301.ref086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiz139","article-title":"Escalation of Pyrethroid Resistance in the Malaria Vector Anopheles funestus Induces a Loss of Efficacy of Piperonyl Butoxide-Based Insecticide-Treated Nets in Mozambique","volume":"220","author":"JM Riveron","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0353301.ref087","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1093\/jeb\/voae086","article-title":"Breeding phenology drives variation in reproductive output, reproductive costs, and offspring fitness in a viviparous ectotherm","volume":"37","author":"T Bodineau","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Evol Biol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0353301.ref088","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17569","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-96759-w","article-title":"Insecticide resistance and behavioural adaptation as a response to long-lasting insecticidal net deployment in malaria vectors in the Cascades region of Burkina Faso","volume":"11","author":"A Sanou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pone.0353301.ref089","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.40150","article-title":"Age, exposure and immunity","volume":"7","author":"M White","year":"2018","journal-title":"Elife"},{"issue":"7","key":"pone.0353301.ref090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20241667","article-title":"Plasmodium falciparum infection induces T cell tolerance that is associated with decreased disease severity upon re-infection","volume":"222","author":"D Mu\u00f1oz Sandoval","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Exp Med"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0353301","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T17:30:39Z","timestamp":1784136639000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0353301"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Rajib","family":"Chowdhury","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0353301","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]]}}}