{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T18:18:06Z","timestamp":1783621086400,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783555200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100019180","name":"HORIZON EUROPE European Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["759926"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["759926"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100019180","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100021828","name":"German Academic Exchange Service","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["91802956"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["91802956"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100021828","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002345","name":"Eberhard Karls Universit\u00e4t T\u00fcbingen","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002345","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    In this paper, we present an archaeobotanical study from Old Dongola, northern Sudan, examining agricultural dynamics and subsistence strategies from the Late Christian to the Islamic period. Old Dongola, established in the 5th century, served as the capital of the Kingdom of Makuria, one of the three medieval Nubian kingdoms. Following the collapse of Makuria in the 14\n                    <jats:sup>th<\/jats:sup>\n                    century, the city underwent significant cultural and social transformations, marked by the migration of Arab tribes and the rise of new power structures. From the 14\n                    <jats:sup>th<\/jats:sup>\n                    to the 18\n                    <jats:sup>th<\/jats:sup>\n                    century, Old Dongola served as the seat of a local ruler who became subordinate to the Funj Sultanate in the 16\n                    <jats:sup>th<\/jats:sup>\n                    century, a period that witnessed religious conversion, migration, and political reorganisation associated with the gradual conversion to Islam in the region. This study is distinguished by a systematic sampling strategy, with sediments collected from every excavated context in the citadel of Old Dongola. The archaeobotanical results, spanning the Kingdom of Dongola and Funj periods (14\n                    <jats:sup>th<\/jats:sup>\n                    \u201318\n                    <jats:sup>th<\/jats:sup>\n                    centuries), shed light on the dietary habits of the site's inhabitants. The evidence indicates an increasing reliance on sorghum, alongside a gradual decline of bread wheat and hulled barley. The introduction of crops such as tobacco and eggplant from the 16\n                    <jats:sup>th<\/jats:sup>\n                    century onwards may reflect broader economic and cultural shifts occurring during this period of religious and demographic change, though a direct causal link between these crop introductions and processes of demographic change or conversion to Islam cannot be established from archaeobotanical evidence alone. This study contributes to our understanding of agricultural change in early modern Sudan, adding to an understudied archaeobotanical record at a time of significant socio-political transition.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0353303","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T17:34:42Z","timestamp":1783618482000},"page":"e0353303","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Continuity or change in the transition to Islam? A diachronic assessment of agricultural production at Old Dongola, Northern Sudan (14th\u201318th centuries CE)"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-6738-2268","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mohammed","family":"Nasreldein","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simone","family":"Riehl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8527-3523","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Artur","family":"Ob\u0142uski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0353303.ref001","volume-title":"Nubia: Corridor to Africa","author":"WY Adams","year":"1977"},{"key":"pone.0353303.ref002","first-page":"472","article-title":"Agriculture and economic-cultural types in medieval Nubia: On the cultural heritage of Meroe in the Middle Ages","volume-title":"Meroitistische Forschungen, Meroitica 7","author":"YM Kobischtschanow","year":"1980"},{"key":"pone.0353303.ref003","volume-title":"The rise of Nobadia: Social changes in northern Nubia in late antiquity","author":"A Ob\u0142uski","year":"2014"},{"key":"pone.0353303.ref004","first-page":"347","article-title":"The cultural ecology of Christian Nubia","volume-title":"Kunst und Geschichte Nubiens in christlicher Zeit: Ergebnisse und Probleme auf Grund der j\u00fcngsten Ausgrabungen","author":"E Dinkler","year":"1970"},{"key":"pone.0353303.ref005","volume-title":"The medieval kingdoms of Nubia: pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile","author":"DA Welsby","year":"2002"},{"key":"pone.0353303.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203482766","volume-title":"The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan","author":"DN Edwards","year":"2004"},{"key":"pone.0353303.ref007","volume-title":"The economy and trade of medieval Nubia","author":"A Osman","year":"1978"},{"key":"pone.0353303.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199891634.001.0001","volume-title":"Medieval Nubia: A Social and Economic History","author":"GR Ruffini","year":"2012"},{"key":"pone.0353303.ref009","first-page":"253","article-title":"Trade in Medieval Nubia","volume-title":"Etudes nubiennes: colloque de Chantilly, 2-6 juillet 1975","author":"PL Shinnie","year":"1978"},{"key":"pone.0353303.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2307\/218446","article-title":"Slavery, land tenure and social class in the northern Turkish Sudan","volume":"15","author":"J Spaulding","year":"1982","journal-title":"Int J Afr Hist Stud"},{"key":"pone.0353303.ref011","first-page":"593","article-title":"Irrigation in the Sudan","volume-title":"Agriculture in the Sudan: Being a Handbook of Agriculture as Practised in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan","author":"WN Allan","year":"1948"},{"key":"pone.0353303.ref012","first-page":"139","article-title":"Cultivating the desert: irrigation expansion and groundwater abstraction in northern state, Sudan","volume":"9","author":"S Fragaszy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Altern"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0353303.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1007\/s12231-022-09545-8","article-title":"Nubian Agricultural Practices, Crops and Foods: Changes in Living Memory on Ernetta Island, Northern Sudan","volume":"76","author":"P Ryan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Econ Bot"},{"key":"pone.0353303.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108908047.004","article-title":"The diffusion of irrigation technologies in the Sahara in antiquity: Settlement, trade and migration","volume-title":"Mobile technologies in the ancient Sahara and beyond","author":"A Wilson","year":"2020"},{"key":"pone.0353303.ref015","first-page":"1","article-title":"Agriculture in the Sudan: The Need for A \u201cBlend\u201d Between Indigenous Knowledge and Modern Technology.","volume-title":"Indigenous Farming Systems, Knowledge and Practices in the Sudan","author":"M. 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