{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]],"date-time":"2026-07-21T18:04:53Z","timestamp":1784657093087,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]],"date-time":"2026-07-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784592000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010407","name":"College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Arizona State University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010407","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000062","name":"National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["T32DK137525"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32DK137525"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000062","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"sec001\">\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Many neurodevelopmental disorders, including dyslexia and childhood apraxia of speech (CAS), have genetic predispositions that are understood to varying degrees. However, the microbiome in individuals with dyslexia and CAS remains underexplored. The goal of this exploratory study was to determine whether fecal and saliva microbiome diversity and composition are associated with dyslexia or CAS.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec002\">\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To this end, we examined the fecal and saliva microbiota of individuals with dyslexia, CAS, and their neurotypical family members using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing in a family-based cohort composing of 7 individuals with dyslexia, 11 with CAS, and 10 neurotypical family members (n\u2009=\u200928). Participants with dyslexia and CAS were drawn from separate families, with neurotypical relatives serving as within-family controls. A total of 19 fecal and 29 saliva samples were collected, with paired fecal-saliva samples available for 19 individuals. Taxonomic classification was performed using four 16S rRNA reference databases, and microbial diversity, composition, and functional potential were analyzed.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec003\">\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Individuals with dyslexia consistently showed distinct fecal microbiome alpha and beta diversity patterns at the species level compared to neurotypical family members and participants with CAS histories, irrespective of taxonomic database employed. Both fecal and saliva datasets identified key taxa associated with dyslexia, but not with CAS. Predicted functional profiling further identified dyslexia-associated pathways in the fecal microbiome, whereas no functional differences were detected in saliva.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sec004\">\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Although these results suggest that individuals with dyslexia may harbor distinct fecal and saliva microbiomes, the findings are exploratory and should be considered as hypothesis-generating. Future studies leveraging larger, independent cohorts will be essential to validate these findings and to more rigorously examine the oral-gut-brain axis in language-based syndromes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0353463","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]],"date-time":"2026-07-21T17:29:51Z","timestamp":1784654991000},"page":"e0353463","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Distinct gut and oral microbiome patterns associated with dyslexia in a family-based cohort: A preliminary exploratory study"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0526-9132","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sterling L.","family":"Wright","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mia","family":"Joslin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yookyung","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4945-6530","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Magdalena","family":"Olson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ayden","family":"Hall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beate","family":"Peter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Corrie M.","family":"Whisner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0353463.ref001","unstructured":"American Psychological Association. 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