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However, it remains unclear the extent to which these effects reflect birth parent influences (genetic and\/or prenatal), environmental rearing experiences, and\/or interactions between them. Parent\u2013offspring adoption designs offer a powerful framework for disentangling these mechanisms by separating birth parent influences from post-natal environmental pathways when the adoptions occur around the time of birth. Although stress experiences of birth parents and adoptive parents have each been associated with child developmental outcomes, the relationship between them remains unexplored. The present study leverages a parent-offspring adoption approach to examine the associations of birth mother life stress with adolescents\u2019 effortful control (EC) via child diurnal cortisol slopes (a marker of hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013adrenal [HPA] axis functioning) and whether adoptive mothers\u2019 or fathers\u2019 experience of stressful life events moderate this relationship. Participants were drawn from families participating in the longitudinal Early Growth and Development Study. The analytic sample included 561 adopted children, and their birth and adoptive parents. Structural equation modeling revealed that birth mother life stress was linked to poorer adoptee EC in adolescence; neither adoptive mothers\u2019 nor fathers\u2019 experiences of stressful life events predicted adoptee EC. Among adoptive parents, only fathers\u2019 experiences of stressful life events predicted child diurnal cortisol slopes, such that greater adoptive fathers\u2019 stress was linked to flatter adoptee wake-to-bedtime cortisol slopes. However, the hypothesized mediation and moderation effects were not supported. These findings show how the birth parent influences (genetic and\/or prenatal) and rearing dimensions of parental stress have differential impacts on the child\u2019s neurobiological functioning and development, where birth mother life stress predicts adolescent self-regulation, and adoptive fathers\u2019 stress predicts child stress sensitivity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0355546","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]],"date-time":"2026-08-11T17:23:40Z","timestamp":1786469020000},"page":"e0355546","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Heritable, Prenatal, and Environmental Pathways of Parental Stress: Differential Influences on Children\u2019s Effortful Control and Cortisol Regulation"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2296-4794","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Rebecca E. 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