{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T18:19:13Z","timestamp":1787941153045,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787875200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100020884","name":"Agencia Nacional de Investigaci\u00f3n y Desarrollo","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1220664"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1220664"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100020884","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The global spread of health-related misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the need to understand the psychological mechanisms that make individuals susceptible to health-related misinformation. This study examined the impact of cognitive load and individual differences on susceptibility to COVID-19 misinformation using a Signal Detection Theory framework. A sample of 634 university students evaluated true and false COVID-19 headlines under working memory load and no-load conditions, while also completing standardized assessments of cognitive reflection, epistemically unwarranted beliefs, na\u00efve skepticism, and bullshit receptivity. Results showed that, although the working memory load manipulation successfully impaired recall and increased response time, it did not affect participants\u2019 tendency to accept false information as true. In contrast, individual-difference variables robustly predicted misinformation susceptibility. Specifically, beliefs in pseudoscience, epistemically unwarranted beliefs, na\u00efve skepticism, and bullshit receptivity showed moderate positive associations with false-alarm rates and negative associations with discrimination sensitivity. Cognitive reflection was negatively associated with false-alarm rates and positively with discrimination sensitivity. Only small associations were found between individual-difference dimensions and response bias. These findings suggest that stable cognitive and epistemic dispositions play a significant role in shaping people\u2019s ability to distinguish between accurate and false health information.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0356642","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T17:42:05Z","timestamp":1787938925000},"page":"e0356642","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cognitive load and individual differences as drivers of health-related misinformation: A signal detection approach"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7002-7776","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Guillermo","family":"Puebla","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5407-3158","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Rodrigo","family":"Ferrer-Urbina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9409-7170","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Daniel","family":"P\u00e9rez-Zapata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karina","family":"Alarc\u00f3n-Castillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Geraldy","family":"Sep\u00falveda-P\u00e1ez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6764-5490","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Herman","family":"Elgueta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0356642.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-01713-6","article-title":"Misinformation: susceptibility, spread, and interventions to immunize the public","volume":"28","author":"S van der Linden","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref002","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Managing the COVID-19 infodemic: promoting healthy behaviours and mitigating the harm from misinformation and disinformation; 2020. Available from: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/23-09-2020-managing-the-covid-19-infodemic-promoting-healthy-behaviours-and-mitigating-the-harm-from-misinformation-and-disinformation"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0356642.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1038\/s44159-021-00006-y","article-title":"The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction","volume":"1","author":"UKH Ecker","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat Rev Psychol"},{"issue":"10225","key":"pone.0356642.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30461-X","article-title":"How to fight an infodemic","volume":"395","author":"J Zarocostas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jretconser.2021.102555","article-title":"Information overload and fake news sharing: a transactional stress perspective exploring the mitigating role of consumers\u2019 resilience during COVID-19","volume":"61","author":"A Bermes","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Retail Consum Serv"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0356642.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291720001890","article-title":"Coronavirus conspiracy beliefs, mistrust, and compliance with government guidelines in England","volume":"52","author":"D Freeman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychol Med"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0356642.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201199","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.201199","article-title":"Susceptibility to misinformation about COVID-19 around the world","volume":"7","author":"J Roozenbeek","year":"2020","journal-title":"R Soc Open Sci"},{"issue":"7811","key":"pone.0356642.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2281-1","article-title":"The online competition between pro- and anti-vaccination views","volume":"582","author":"NF Johnson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref009","volume-title":"Signal detection theory and psychophysics","author":"DM Green","year":"1966"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0356642.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691620986135","article-title":"A signal detection approach to understanding the identification of fake news","volume":"17","author":"C Batailler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Perspect Psychol Sci"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0356642.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2205","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0001381","article-title":"Truth sensitivity and partisan bias in responses to misinformation","volume":"152","author":"B Gawronski","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Gen"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2024.104632","article-title":"Susceptibility to misinformation about COVID-19 vaccines: a signal detection analysis","volume":"114","author":"LS Nahon","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Exp Soc Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref013","article-title":"Who falls for misinformation and why?","author":"TJ Hubeny","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pers Soc Psychol Bull"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0356642.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03207704","article-title":"Calculation of signal detection theory measures","volume":"31","author":"H Stanislaw","year":"1999","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods Instrum Comput"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2018.06.011","article-title":"Lazy, not biased: susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning","volume":"188","author":"G Pennycook","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0356642.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691612460685","article-title":"Dual-process theories of higher cognition: advancing the debate","volume":"8","author":"JSBT Evans","year":"2013","journal-title":"Perspect Psychol Sci"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315204550","volume-title":"Dual process theory 2.0","author":"W De Neys","year":"2017"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogpsych.2015.05.001","article-title":"What makes us think? A three-stage dual-process model of analytic engagement","volume":"80","author":"G Pennycook","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cogn Psychol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0356642.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2021.02.007","article-title":"The psychology of fake news","volume":"25","author":"G Pennycook","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0356642.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1080\/13546783.2020.1813806","article-title":"Analytic-thinking predicts hoax beliefs and helping behaviors in response to the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"27","author":"ML Stanley","year":"2020","journal-title":"Think Reason"},{"issue":"8","key":"pone.0356642.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1608","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000729","article-title":"Fake news, fast and slow: deliberation reduces belief in false (but not true) news headlines","volume":"149","author":"B Bago","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Gen"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0356642.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1257\/089533005775196732","article-title":"Cognitive reflection and decision making","volume":"19","author":"S Frederick","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Econ Perspect"},{"issue":"9","key":"pone.0356642.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1502","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-023-01641-6","article-title":"Understanding and combatting misinformation across 16 countries on six continents","volume":"7","author":"AA Arechar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0356642.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1037\/h0101832","article-title":"Belief in fake news is associated with delusionality, dogmatism, religious fundamentalism, and reduced analytic thinking","volume":"8","author":"MV Bronstein","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Appl Res Mem Cogn"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0356642.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1111\/jopy.12476","article-title":"Who falls for fake news? The roles of bullshit receptivity, overclaiming, familiarity, and analytic thinking","volume":"88","author":"G Pennycook","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Pers"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0356642.ref026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1017\/S1930297500008640","article-title":"Beyond \u201cfake news\u201d: analytic thinking and the detection of false and hyperpartisan news headlines","volume":"16","author":"RM Ross","year":"2021","journal-title":"Judgm Decis Mak"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0356642.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1017\/S1930297500005271","article-title":"Ideology, motivated reasoning, and cognitive reflection","volume":"8","author":"DM Kahan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Judgm Decis Mak"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0356642.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.108.3.480","article-title":"The case for motivated reasoning","volume":"108","author":"Z Kunda","year":"1990","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0356642.ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1177\/1329878X20946113","article-title":"\u2018Corona? 5G? or both?\u2019: the dynamics of COVID-19\/5G conspiracy theories on Facebook","volume":"177","author":"A Bruns","year":"2020","journal-title":"Media Int Aust"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0356642.ref030","article-title":"Prejudice is epistemically unwarranted belief","volume":"38","author":"EJC Lobato","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl Cogn Psychol"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0356642.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.3042","article-title":"Examining the relationship between conspiracy theories, paranormal beliefs, and pseudoscience acceptance among a university population","volume":"28","author":"E Lobato","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl Cogn Psychol"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2020.113356","article-title":"Conspiracy theories as barriers to controlling the spread of COVID-19 in the U.S","volume":"263","author":"D Romer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref033","unstructured":"Schaeffer K. A look at the Americans who believe there is some truth to the conspiracy theory that covid-19 was planned; 2020. Available from: https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/short-reads\/2020\/07\/24\/a-look-at-the-americans-who-believe-there-is-some-truth-to-the-conspiracy-theory-that-covid-19-was-planned\/"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0356642.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1080\/13562517.2018.1544552","article-title":"The truth, but not yet: avoiding na\u00efve skepticism via explicit communication of metadisciplinary aims","volume":"24","author":"J Wright","year":"2019","journal-title":"Teach High Educ"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0356642.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/s42438-019-00051-0","article-title":"\u201cMany People Are Saying\u2026\u201d: applying the lessons of Na\u00efve Skepticism to the fight against fake news and other \u201cTotal Bullshit\u201d","volume":"2","author":"J Wright","year":"2019","journal-title":"Postdigit Sci Educ"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref036","first-page":"22","article-title":"Constructive skepticism, dysfunctional cynicism? Skepticism and cynicism differently determine generalized media trust","volume":"15","author":"O Quiring","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Commun"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0356642.ref037","first-page":"120","article-title":"Engaging student relativism","volume":"5","author":"GJ Erion","year":"2005","journal-title":"Discourse: Learn Teach Philos Relig Stud"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0356642.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1017\/S1930297500006999","article-title":"On the reception and detection of pseudo-profound bullshit","volume":"10","author":"G Pennycook","year":"2015","journal-title":"Judgm Decis Mak"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0356642.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1007\/s11031-024-10067-0","article-title":"Mindsets and politically motivated reasoning about fake news","volume":"48","author":"J Ludwig","year":"2024","journal-title":"Motiv Emot"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0356642.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22416","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-26209-8","article-title":"Time pressure reduces misinformation discrimination ability but does not alter response bias","volume":"12","author":"M Sultan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroecorev.2015.05.004","article-title":"The effect of cognitive load on economic decision making: a survey and new experiments","volume":"78","author":"C Deck","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur Econ Rev"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0356642.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2006.01723.x","article-title":"Dual processing in reasoning: two systems but one reasoner","volume":"17","author":"W De Neys","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychol Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0356642.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.3758\/BRM.41.4.1149","article-title":"Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: tests for correlation and regression analyses","volume":"41","author":"F Faul","year":"2009","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref044","article-title":"Tres a\u00f1os de pandemia y desinformaci\u00f3n: caracterizaci\u00f3n longitudinal de informaci\u00f3n falsa relativa al covid-19 en chile","volume":"20","author":"H Elgueta","year":"2025","journal-title":"L\u00edmite (Arica)"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0356642.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1017\/S1930297500007622","article-title":"Investigating an alternate form of the cognitive reflection test","volume":"11","author":"KS Thomson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Judgm Decis Mak"},{"issue":"10","key":"pone.0356642.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0333911","article-title":"Epistemically unwarranted beliefs scale, development and evidence of validity in the Chilean population","volume":"20","author":"R Ferrer-Urbina","year":"2025","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0356642.ref047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/s41155-024-00288-0","article-title":"Naive skepticism scale: development and validation tests applied to the chilean population","volume":"37","author":"R Ferrer-Urbina","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psicol Reflex Crit"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref048","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez-Fuentes B, Sep\u00falveda-P\u00e1ez G, Ferrer-Urbina R. Scale of sensitivity to bullshit: development and evidence of validity in adult population. Available from: https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=5005515"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0356642.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-018-01193-y","article-title":"PsychoPy2: Experiments in behavior made easy","volume":"51","author":"J Peirce","year":"2019","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4324\/9781410611147","volume-title":"Detection theory: a user\u2019s guide","author":"N Macmillan","year":"2004","edition":"2"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0356642.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1080\/10705510903008204","article-title":"Exploratory structural equation modeling","volume":"16","author":"T Asparouhov","year":"2009","journal-title":"Struct Equ Model"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0356642.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1080\/10705511.2014.937669","article-title":"The performance of maximum likelihood and weighted least square mean and variance adjusted estimators in testing differential item functioning with nonnormal trait distributions","volume":"22","author":"Y Suh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Struct Equ Model"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref053","volume-title":"Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences","author":"J Cohen","year":"1988"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0356642.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sapharm.2016.06.006","article-title":"Update to core reporting practices in structural equation modeling","volume":"13","author":"JB Schreiber","year":"2017","journal-title":"Res Soc Admin Pharm"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0356642.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327906mbr3902_7","article-title":"Two replicable suppressor situations in personality research","volume":"39","author":"DL Paulhus","year":"2004","journal-title":"Multivariate Behav Res"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203774441","volume-title":"Applied multiple regression\/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences","author":"J Cohen","year":"2013"},{"key":"pone.0356642.ref057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2022.115398","article-title":"Why do people believe health misinformation and who is at risk? A systematic review of individual differences in susceptibility to health misinformation","volume":"314","author":"X Nan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0356642.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03208765","article-title":"Measures of sensitivity based on a single hit rate and false alarm rate: the accuracy, precision, and robustness of d\u2019, Az, and A\u2019","volume":"68","author":"ME Verde","year":"2006","journal-title":"Percept Psychophys"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0356642","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T17:42:13Z","timestamp":1787938933000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0356642"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Anat","family":"Gesser-Edelsburg","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0356642","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]}}}