{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T18:08:43Z","timestamp":1790014123600,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789948800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52008130"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52008130"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Understanding spatial competition between retail formats is vital for sustaining urban commercial vitality. In China\u2019s rapidly evolving urban economy, the contrast between light\u2011asset and capital\u2011intensive formats within traditional retail has been increasingly shaped by urban redevelopment and changing consumer behavior. However, prior studies largely confine themselves to linear assumptions, neglecting nonlinear dynamics and complex interdependencies. They also lack systematic comparisons between light-asset and capital-intensive formats, especially when attempting to integrate objective urban features with perceptual dimensions. This study investigates how objective urban environment indicators and human perception jointly shape the spatial density of two traditional retail formats, light\u2011asset (convenience stores) and capital\u2011intensive (large-scale supermarkets and shopping malls), in Shenzhen, China. Using multi\u2011source geospatial data and an integrated framework combining XGBoost, SHAP, Partial Dependence Plots (PDP), Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM), and Bayesian Networks (BN), we quantify nonlinear effects, interaction patterns, and probabilistic association pathways. Results reveal distinct locational logics: light\u2011asset retail thrives through widespread penetration, responding strongly to competition intensity, service\u2011function proximity, and perceptual synergies; capital\u2011intensive retail concentrates in high\u2011yield hubs, driven by facility networks, accessibility, and high\u2011quality aesthetic environments above defined thresholds. Human perception emerges as a core determinant, accounting for up to 28.95% of explanatory importance, often exerting threshold\u2011dependent effects. The ISM\u2013BN analysis uncovers multi\u2011entry vs. sequential pathways to spatial clustering across formats. Findings advance retail location theory by linking built\u2011environment metrics with street-level perceptual attributes, offering actionable guidance for urban planners to tailor format\u2011specific, perception\u2011oriented, and threshold\u2011sensitive strategies for sustainable retail ecosystems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0358597","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T17:22:58Z","timestamp":1790011378000},"page":"e0358597","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Uncovering traditional retail location competition with machine learning: The role of urban environments in light-asset and capital-intensive formats"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-7851-1611","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Yueyi","family":"Tan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen)","place":["Shenzhen, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jusheng","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen)","place":["Shenzhen, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-5621-7985","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Guangying","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen)","place":["Shenzhen, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunxi","family":"Bai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen)","place":["Shenzhen, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tongji University","place":["Shanghai, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xuren","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore","place":["Singapore"],"department":["Department of Architecture"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0358597.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/0198-9715(91)90007-Z","article-title":"A decision support and expert system for retail planning","volume":"15","author":"A Borgers","year":"1991","journal-title":"Computers, Environment and Urban Systems"},{"key":"pone.0358597.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-6451.2010.00431.x","article-title":"Survival and growth in retail and service industries: evidence from franchised chains","volume":"58","author":"R Kosov\u00e1","year":"2010","journal-title":"The Journal of Industrial Economics"},{"key":"pone.0358597.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2024.105668","article-title":"Location differs between traditional and new retail: A comparison analysis of Starbucks and Luckin Coffee in China using machine learning","volume":"158","author":"F Gao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cities"},{"key":"pone.0358597.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2019.102456","article-title":"Exploring the geography of retail success and decline: A case study of the Liverpool City Region","volume":"96","author":"L Dolega","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cities"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0358597.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1108\/09590550910927162","article-title":"Customer satisfaction in food retailing: comparing specialty and conventional grocery stores","volume":"37","author":"P Huddleston","year":"2009","journal-title":"International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management"},{"key":"pone.0358597.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103034","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2023.103034","article-title":"Evaluating the factors influencing the location strategies of specialty grocers versus traditional supermarkets in the United States","volume":"158","author":"C Reed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Applied Geography"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0358597.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jretai.2022.02.006","article-title":"Retail store formats, competition and shopper behavior: A Systematic review","volume":"98","author":"A Bonfrer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Retailing"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0358597.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cities.2009.02.007","article-title":"Urban retail fabric and the metro: A complex relationship. 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