{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]],"date-time":"2026-10-18T01:52:00Z","timestamp":1792288320290,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790121600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Schmidt Sciences","award":["N\/A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N\/A"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/044fk6795","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Planarian flatworms represent one of the most evolutionarily informative nervous systems for an account of ancient bilaterian brains. Likewise, the unparalleled regenerative ability of planarians makes possible certain investigations of neural development, memory, and behavior that are simply impossible with other model organisms. Despite these facts, learning and memory are today underexplored in planarians, likely due in part to the controversial legacy of 20th-century experiments on the transfer of memories between individual flatworms. Here, we attempted to replicate and extend the classical conditioning experiments in planarians that were the basis of the later memory transfer work. We failed to find evidence of learning using both historical and contemporary conditioning protocols, and using computer vision methods to avoid subjectivity in manual video annotation. Our results cast doubt on the suitability of historic conditioning protocols for\n                    <jats:italic>Girardia dorotocephala<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>Schmidtea mediterranea<\/jats:italic>\n                    planarians. We encourage future researchers to explore more ethologically relevant conditioning paradigms to establish a behavioral foundation for investigating the molecular basis of learning.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0358756","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T17:39:58Z","timestamp":1790185198000},"page":"e0358756","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Failure to classically condition G. dorotocephala and S. mediterranea flatworms using historical and contemporary light-shock paradigms"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-8817-3099","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Zachary S.","family":"Kelso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Harvard University","place":["Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America"],"department":["Department of Psychology and Center for Brain Science"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Madeleine C.","family":"Snyder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harvard University","place":["Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America"],"department":["Department of Psychology and Center for Brain Science"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6546-3298","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Samuel J.","family":"Gershman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harvard University","place":["Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America"],"department":["Department of Psychology and Center for Brain Science"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0358756.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/s00427-012-0423-7","article-title":"The urbilaterian brain revisited: novel insights into old questions from new flatworm clades","volume":"223","author":"X Bailly","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dev Genes Evol"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0358756.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/2041-9139-4-27","article-title":"Evolution of bilaterian central nervous systems: a single origin?","volume":"4","author":"LZ Holland","year":"2013","journal-title":"Evodevo"},{"key":"pone.0358756.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-820584-6.00004-0","article-title":"Invertebrate origins of vertebrate nervous systems.","volume-title":"Evolutionary Neuroscience","author":"L Holland","year":"2020"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0358756.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1053\/spen.2002.32502","article-title":"When does a ganglion become a brain? 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